MKS INC (MKSI)

Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (“MD&A”) describes principal factors affecting the results of operations, financial condition, cash flows and liquidity, as well as our critical accounting policies and estimates that require significant judgment and thus have the most significant potential impact on our consolidated financial statements, and is intended to better allow investors to view the Company from management’s perspective. This section focuses on material events and uncertainties known to management that are reasonably likely to cause reported financial information not to be necessarily indicative of our future operating results or of our future financial condition. This section provides an analysis of our financial results for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to the year ended December 31, 2023. For the discussion and analysis covering the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to the year ended December 31, 2022, please refer to “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” in Part II, Item 7 of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2023, as filed with the SEC on February 27, 2024. As a result of rounding, there may be immaterial differences in amounts presented and certain calculations may not sum to the total number expressed in each category or tie to a corresponding schedule.

Overview

We enable technologies that transform our world. We deliver foundational technology solutions to leading edge semiconductor manufacturing, electronics and packaging, and specialty industrial applications. We apply our broad science and engineering capabilities to create instruments, subsystems, systems, process control solutions and specialty chemicals technology that improve process performance, optimize productivity and enable unique innovations for many of the world’s leading technology and industrial companies. Our solutions are critical to addressing the challenges of miniaturization and complexity in advanced device manufacturing by enabling increased power, speed, feature enhancement and optimized connectivity. Our solutions are also critical to addressing ever-increasing performance requirements across a wide array of specialty industrial applications.

Segments

We have three divisions, which are our reportable segments: Vacuum Solutions Division (“VSD”), Photonics Solutions Division (“PSD”) and Materials Solutions Division (“MSD”).

VSD delivers foundational technology solutions to semiconductor manufacturing, electronics and packaging and specialty industrial applications. VSD products are derived from our core competencies in vacuum technologies, including pressure measurement and control, flow measurement and control, gas and vapor delivery, gas composition analysis, electronic control technology, reactive gas generation and delivery, power generation and delivery, and fiber optic temperature and position sensing.

PSD provides a broad range of solutions including lasers, beam measurement and profiling, precision motion control, vibration isolation systems, photonics instruments, opto-mechanical components, optical elements, laser-based systems for flexible printed circuit board (“PCB”) laser processing, laser-based systems for high density interconnect PCB and package substrate manufacturing. During the quarter ended March 31, 2024, we moved our Optical Sensing Products (“OSP”) product line from the PSD segment to the VSD segment. The purpose of this realignment was to better align the OSP products with semiconductor related products within the VSD segment. Prior periods have been recast to reflect this change.

MSD develops leading process and manufacturing technologies for advanced surface modification, electroless and electrolytic plating, and surface finishing. Applying a comprehensive systems-and-solutions approach, MSD’s portfolio includes chemistry, equipment and services for innovative and high-technology applications in our electronics and packaging and specialty industrial markets.

Markets

Net Revenues by End Market

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Semiconductor Market

MKS is a critical solutions provider for semiconductor manufacturing. Our products are used in major semiconductor processing steps, such as deposition, etching, cleaning, lithography, metrology, and inspection. The semiconductor industry continually faces new challenges, as products become smaller, more powerful and highly mobile. Ultra-thin layers, smaller critical dimensions, new materials, 3D structures, and the ongoing need for higher yield and productivity drive the need for tighter process measurement and control, all of which MKS supports. We believe we are the broadest critical subsystem provider in the wafer fabrication equipment (“WFE”) ecosystem and address over 85% of the market. We characterize our broad and unique offering as Surround the Wafer® to reflect the technology enablement we provide across almost every major process in semiconductor manufacturing today.

The semiconductor market is subject to rapid demand shifts, which are difficult to predict, and we cannot be certain as to the timing or extent of future demand or any future softening in the semiconductor capital equipment industry. In addition to these rapid demand shifts, the semiconductor capital equipment industry is subject to significant trade restrictions, especially in China.

Approximately 42% and 41% of our net revenues for 2024 and 2023, respectively, were from sales to customers in the semiconductor market.

Net revenues from customers in our semiconductor market increased by $19 million, or 1%, in 2024, compared to 2023, due primarily to an increase in sales of our lithography, metrology and inspection products, which we refer to as our World Class Optics portfolio, partially offset by decreased industry spending on deposition and etch equipment for memory applications, particularly NAND, where MKS is a critical solutions provider.

Electronics and Packaging Market

MKS is a foundational solutions provider for the electronics and packaging market. Our portfolio includes photonics components, laser drilling systems, electronics chemistries and plating equipment that are critical for the manufacturing of PCBs and package substrates, and critical to wafer level packaging (“WLP”) applications. Similar to the semiconductor industry, the PCB, package substrate and WLP industries demand smaller features, greater density, and better performance. In addition, the electronics and packaging market also includes sales of our vacuum and photonics solutions for display manufacturing applications. We characterize our complementary offering of laser systems and chemistry solutions as Optimize the Interconnect®, to reflect the unique technology enablement we provide at the Interconnect level within PCBs, package substrates and WLPs.

Approximately 26% and 25% of our net revenues for 2024 and 2023, respectively, were from sales to customers in our electronics and packaging market.

Net revenues from customers in our electronics and packaging market increased by $6 million, or 1%, in 2024 compared to 2023. This increase was primarily due to an increase in industry demand for PCB via drilling systems at PSD and an increase in the volume of chemistry materials at MSD, partially offset by a decline in palladium prices for chemistry products, which lower prices are passed through to our customers, and lower equipment revenue at MSD as customers postponed investment decisions.

Specialty Industrial Market

MKS’ strategy in the specialty industrial market is to leverage our domain expertise and proprietary technologies across a broad array of applications in industrial, life and health sciences, and research and defense markets.

Industrial

Industrial encompasses a wide range of diverse applications, including chemistries for functional coatings, surface finishing and wear resistance in the automobile industry, vacuum solutions for synthetic diamond manufacturing and photonics for solar manufacturing. Other applications include vacuum and photonics solutions for light emitting diode and laser diode manufacturing.

Life and Health Sciences

Our products for life and health sciences are used in a diverse array of applications, including bioimaging, medical instrument sterilization, medical device manufacturing, analytical, diagnostic and surgical instrumentation, consumable medical supply manufacturing and pharmaceutical production.

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Research and Defense

Our products for research and defense are sold to government, university and industrial laboratories for applications involving research and development in materials science, physical chemistry, photonics, optics and electronics materials. Our products are also sold for monitoring and defense applications, including surveillance, imaging and infrastructure protection.

Approximately 32% and 34% of our net revenues for 2024 and 2023, respectively, were from customers in our specialty industrial market.

Net revenues from customers in our specialty industrial market decreased by $61 million, or 5%, in 2024, compared to 2023. This decrease was driven primarily by lower revenue in the solar, general industrial and material processing markets, mainly within VSD and MSD.

International Markets

Starting in the second quarter of 2024, we changed our basis of reporting geographical net revenues from the location in which the sale originated to the shipped-to location of the end customer. Prior periods have been recast to reflect this change, which was made to better align with how management reviews geographic net revenues.

A significant portion of our net revenues is from sales to customers in international markets. International net revenues accounted for approximately 78% and 75% of our total net revenues in 2024 and 2023, respectively. A significant portion of our international net revenues was from customers in China, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan and Singapore. We expect international net revenues will continue to account for a significant percentage of total net revenues for the foreseeable future.

Long-lived assets located outside of the United States accounted for approximately 59% and 58% of our total long-lived assets as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, respectively. Long-lived assets include property, plant and equipment, net, right-of-use assets, net and certain other assets.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

MD&A discusses our Consolidated Financial Statements, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (“U.S. GAAP”). The preparation of these financial statements requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. On an ongoing basis, we evaluate our estimates and judgments, including those related to revenue recognition, inventory valuation, warranty costs, pension plan valuations, stock-based compensation expense, intangible assets, goodwill and long-lived assets, income taxes and derivatives. We base our estimates and judgments on historical experience and on various other factors that are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

For a complete description of our significant accounting policies, see Part II—Item 8 Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, Note 3, “Summary of Significant Accounting Policies”. We believe the following critical accounting policies affect the most significant judgments, assumptions and estimates we use in preparing our Consolidated Financial Statements:

Revenue Recognition. We account for revenue using Accounting Standards Codification 606, “Revenue from Contracts with Customers” (“ASC Topic 606”). We apply ASC Topic 606 using the following steps:

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Identify the contract with a customer

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Identify the performance obligations in the contract

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Determine the transaction price

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Allocate the transaction price to performance obligations in the contract

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Recognize revenue when or as we satisfy a performance obligation

Revenue is recognized when or as obligations under the terms of a contract with our customer have been satisfied and control has transferred to the customer. The majority of our performance obligations, and associated revenue, are transferred to customers at a point in time, generally upon shipment of a product to the customer or receipt of the product by the customer and without significant judgments. We recognize revenue over time for contracts relating to the manufacturing, modifications and retrofits of our plating equipment, as the equipment is built to customer specification, and we have an enforceable right to payment for the performance completed to date. For these sales, we use the cost-to-cost input method to measure progress. In cases, where

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cost-to-cost is not proportionate to our progress in satisfying the performance obligation because of uninstalled materials, we adjust the measure of progress and recognize revenue to the extent of cost incurred to satisfy the performance obligation under the contract. Revenue from customized products with no alternative future use to us, and that have an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date, is also recorded over time. We consider this to be a faithful depiction of the transfer to the customer of revenue over time as the work is performed or service is delivered. Adjustments for custom products were immaterial in each of the periods presented.

Installation services, other than those related to our plating equipment, are not significant, are usually completed in a short period of time and, therefore, are recorded at a point in time when the installation services are completed, rather than over time, as they are not material. Extended warranty, service contracts, and repair services, which are transferred to the customer over time, are recorded as revenue as the services are performed. For repair services, we make an accrual at each quarter end based upon historical repair times within our product groups to record revenue based upon the estimated number of days completed to date, which is consistent with ratable recognition.

Revenue is measured as the amount of consideration we expect to receive in exchange for transferring goods or providing services. Performance obligations promised in a contract are identified based on the products or services that will be transferred to the customer that are both capable of being distinct, whereby the customer can benefit from the product or service either on its own or together with other resources that are readily available from third parties or from us, and are distinct in the context of the contract, whereby the transfer of the product or service is separately identifiable from other promises in the contract. Sales tax, value add tax, and other taxes we collect concurrent with revenue-producing activities are excluded from revenue. Our normal payment terms are 30 to 60 days but vary by the type and location of our customers and the products or services offered. The time between invoicing and when payment is due is not significant. For certain products and services and customer types, we require payment before the products are delivered to, or the services are performed for, the customer. None of our contracts in each of the periods presented contained a significant financing component.

We periodically enter into contracts with our customers in which a customer may purchase a combination of goods and or services, such as products with installation services or extended warranties. These contracts include multiple deliverables that we evaluate to determine if the deliverables are separate performance obligations. Once we determine the performance obligations, we then determine the transaction price, which includes estimating the amount of variable consideration to be included in the transaction price, if any. To the extent the transaction price includes variable consideration, we estimate the amount of variable consideration that should be included in the transaction price utilizing either the expected value method or the most likely amount method, depending on the method we expect to better predict the amount of consideration to which we will be entitled. There are no constraints on the variable consideration recorded. We then allocate the transaction price to each performance obligation in the contract based on a relative stand-alone selling price charged separately to customers or using an expected cost-plus margin method. The corresponding revenues are recognized when or as the related performance obligations are satisfied, which are noted above. The impact of variable consideration was immaterial in each of the periods presented.

Our standard assurance warranty is normally 12 to 24 months. We sell separately priced service contracts and extended warranty contracts related to certain of our products, in particular related to our plating and laser-based products. These separately priced contracts generally range from 12 to 60 months. We normally receive payment at the inception of the contract and recognize revenue over the term of the contract in proportion to the costs expected to be incurred in satisfying the obligations under the contract. We have elected to use the practical expedient related to disclosing remaining performance obligations as of December 31, 2024 and 2023, as the majority have a duration of less than one year.

We monitor and track the amount of product returns, provide for sales return allowances and reduce revenue at the time of shipment for the estimated amount of such future returns, based on historical experience. We make estimates evaluating our allowance for doubtful accounts. While product returns have historically been within our expectations and established provisions, there is no assurance that we will continue to experience the same return rates that we have in the past. Any significant increase in product return rates could have a material adverse impact on our operating results for the period in which such returns materialize.

While we maintain a credit approval process, significant judgments are made by management in connection with assessing our customers' ability to pay at the time of shipment. Despite this assessment, from time to time, our customers are unable to meet their payment obligations. We continuously monitor our customers' creditworthiness and use our judgment in establishing a provision for estimated credit losses based upon our historical experience and any specific customer collection issues that we have identified. While such credit losses have historically been within our expectations and the provisions established, there is no assurance that we will continue to experience the same credit loss rates that we have in the past. A significant change in the liquidity or financial position of our customers could have a material adverse impact on the collectability of accounts receivable and our future operating results. Bad debt expense was immaterial in each period presented.

Inventory Valuation. We value our inventory at the lower of cost or net realizable value, cost being determined using a standard costing system that approximates actual costs, based on a first-in, first-out method. We regularly review inventory quantities on hand and record a provision to write-down excess and obsolete inventory to its estimated net realizable value, if less

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than cost, based primarily on our estimated forecast of product demand. Once our inventory value is written-down and a new cost basis has been established, the inventory value is not increased due to demand increases. Demand for our products can fluctuate significantly. A significant increase in the demand for our products could result in a short-term increase in the cost of inventory purchases as a result of supply shortages or a decrease in the cost of inventory purchases as a result of volume discounts, while a significant decrease in demand could result in an increase in the charges for excess inventory quantities on hand. In addition, our industry is subject to technological change, new product development and product technological obsolescence that could result in an increase in the amount of obsolete inventory quantities on hand. Therefore, any significant unanticipated changes in demand or technological developments could have a significant impact on the value of our inventory and our reported operating results. Excess and obsolete expense was $56 million, $64 million and $21 million for 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively. The higher excess and obsolete charge in 2023 was partially the result of an inventory write-off related to the discontinuation of a product line in 2023 and partially the result of reduced forecasted usage. The higher excess and obsolete charge in 2024 was the result of reduced forecasted usage.

Warranty Costs. We provide for the estimated costs to fulfill customer warranty obligations upon the recognition of the related revenue. We provide warranty coverage for our products for periods ranging from 12 to 36 months, with the majority of our products for periods ranging from 12 to 24 months. Short-term accrued warranty obligations, which expire within one year, are included in other current liabilities and long-term accrued warranty obligations are included in other liabilities in the consolidated balance sheets. We estimate the anticipated costs of repairing our products under such warranties based on the historical costs of the repairs and any known specific product issues. The assumptions we use to estimate warranty accruals are re-evaluated periodically in light of actual experience and, when appropriate, the accruals are adjusted. Our determination of the appropriate level of warranty accrual is based upon estimates. Should product failure rates differ from our estimates, actual costs could vary significantly from our expectations. Defective products will be either repaired or replaced, generally at our option, upon meeting certain criteria.

Pension Plan Valuations. Several of our non-U.S. subsidiaries have defined benefit pension plans covering employees of those subsidiaries. The majority of these defined benefit plans are frozen and do not allow new employees to join the plans. Some of the plans are unfunded, as permitted under the plans and applicable laws. For financial reporting purposes, we obtained actuarial reports supporting the calculation of net periodic pension costs that used a number of actuarial assumptions, including a discount rate for plan obligations, an assumed rate of return on pension plan assets, and an assumed rate of compensation increase for employees covered by the various plans. We reviewed these actuarial assumptions and concluded they were reasonable based upon our judgment, considering known trends and uncertainties. Actual results that differ from these assumptions would impact future expense recognition and the cash funding requirements of our pension plans.

Stock-Based Compensation Expense. Stock-based awards include (i) time-based restricted stock units (“RSUs”), (ii) performance-based RSUs based on the achievement of adjusted EBITDA targets (the “Adjusted EBITDA RSUs”), (iii) performance-based RSUs based on the Company’s total shareholder return relative to a group of peers over a three-year performance period (the “rTSR RSUs”) and (iv) employee stock purchase plan rights. We record compensation expense for all stock-based compensation awards to employees and directors based upon the estimated fair market value of the underlying instrument. Accordingly, stock-based compensation cost is measured at the grant date, based upon the fair value of the award.

We determine the fair value of time-based RSUs based on the closing market price of our common stock on the date of the award. We determine the original fair value of Adjusted EBITDA RSUs based upon the closing market price of our stock on the date of the award and adjust the fair value quarterly during the first year based upon actual and forecasted results against Adjusted EBITDA targets. Accordingly, the number of performance shares earned will vary based on the level of achievement of financial performance objectives for the applicable period. For each quarter until such time that our financial performance can ultimately be determined, we estimate the number of performance shares to be earned based on an evaluation of the probability of achieving the financial performance objectives. Such estimates are revised, if necessary, in subsequent periods when the underlying factors change our evaluation of the probability of achieving the financial performance objectives. Accordingly, share-based compensation expense associated with performance shares may differ significantly from the amount recorded in the current period. Such values are recognized as expense using the accelerated graded vesting method for Adjusted EBITDA RSUs, all over the requisite service periods. We estimate the fair value of rTSR RSUs using the Monte Carlo simulation model, which requires the use of highly subjective and complex assumptions, including the price volatility of the underlying stock. For the rTSR RSUs, the expense computed for the total shareholder return shares is fixed and recognized on a straight-line basis over the vesting period.

We provide certain employees the opportunity to purchase our shares through an Employee Stock Purchase Plan (“ESPP”). We estimate the fair value of shares issued under our ESPP using the Black-Scholes model, which incorporates a number of complex and subjective variables, including expected stock price volatility over the term of the awards, expected life, risk-free interest rate and expected dividends. Management determined that blended stock-based compensation, a combination of historical and implied volatility, is more reflective of market conditions and a better indicator of expected volatility than historical or implied volatility alone.

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The assumptions used in calculating the fair value of share-based compensation awards represents management’s best estimates, but these estimates involve inherent uncertainties and the application of management’s judgment. As a result, if factors change and we use different assumptions, our stock-based compensation expense could be materially different in the future.

Intangible Assets, Goodwill and Long-Lived Assets. As a result of our acquisitions, we have identified intangible assets and generated significant goodwill. Definite-lived intangible assets are valued based on estimates of future cash flows and amortized over their estimated useful life. Determining fair value requires the exercise of significant judgment, including assumptions about appropriate discount rates as well as forecasted revenue, terminal growth rate, gross profit and operating expenses.

Goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets are subject to annual impairment testing as well as testing upon the occurrence of any event that indicates a potential impairment. Intangible assets and other long-lived assets are also subject to an impairment test if there is an indicator of impairment. If our expectations of future results and cash flows are significantly diminished, intangible assets, goodwill and other long-lived assets may be impaired and the resulting charge to operations may be material. When we determine that the carrying value of intangible assets or other long-lived assets may not be recoverable based upon the existence of one or more indicators of impairment, we use the projected undiscounted cash flow method to determine whether an impairment exists and then measure the impairment using discounted cash flows. To measure impairment for goodwill, we compare the fair value of our reporting units by measuring discounted cash flows to the book value of the reporting units. Goodwill would be impaired if the resulting implied fair value was less than the recorded book value of the goodwill.

The estimation of useful lives and expected cash flows requires us to make significant judgments regarding future periods that are subject to factors outside of our control. Changes in these estimates can result in significant revisions to the carrying value of these assets and may result in material charges to the results of operations.

We have elected to perform our annual goodwill impairment test as of October 31 of each year, or more often if events or circumstances indicate that there may be impairment. Goodwill is the amount by which the cost of acquired net assets exceeded the fair value of those net assets on the date of acquisition. We allocate goodwill to reporting units at the time of acquisition or when there is a change in the reporting structure and base that allocation on which reporting units will benefit from the acquired assets and liabilities. Reporting units are defined as operating segments or one level below an operating segment, referred to as a component. The estimated fair value of our reporting units was based on discounted cash flow models derived from internal earnings and internal and external market forecasts. Determining fair value requires the exercise of significant judgment, including assumptions about appropriate discount and perpetual growth rates, as well as forecasted revenue growth rates and gross profit and operating expenses. Discount rates are based on a weighted average cost of capital (“WACC”), which represents the average rate a business must pay its providers of debt and equity. The WACC used to test goodwill is derived from a group of comparable companies. Assumptions in estimating future cash flows are subject to a high degree of judgment and complexity. We make every effort to forecast these future cash flows as accurately as possible with the information available at the time the forecast is developed.

In performing our annual goodwill impairment test, we are permitted to first assess qualitative factors to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of our reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, including goodwill. In performing the qualitative assessment, we consider certain events and circumstances specific to the reporting unit and to the entity as a whole, such as macroeconomic conditions, industry and market considerations, overall financial performance and cost factors when evaluating whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. We are also permitted to bypass the qualitative assessment and proceed directly to the quantitative assessment. If we choose to undertake the qualitative assessment and we conclude that it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, we would then proceed to the quantitative impairment assessment. In the quantitative assessment, we compare the fair value of the reporting unit to its carrying amount, which includes goodwill. If the fair value exceeds the carrying value, no impairment loss exists. If the fair value is less than the carrying amount, a goodwill impairment loss is measured and recorded.

As of October 31, 2024, we performed our annual impairment assessment of goodwill using a qualitative assessment for all of our reporting units. We determined that it was more likely than not that the fair values were more than the carrying values for each of the reporting units.

During the quarter ended June 30, 2023, as a result of softer industry demand, particularly in the personal computer and smartphone markets, we concluded there was a triggering event at our Electronics (“EL”) and general metal finishing (“GMF”) reporting units, which together constitute MSD, and our Equipment Solutions Business (“ESB”) reporting unit of PSD. We concluded there was no triggering event at our other reporting units within VSD and PSD.

For the EL, GMF and ESB reporting units, we performed a quantitative assessment of goodwill using a combination of a market approach and the income approach. This quantitative assessment resulted in a non-cash goodwill impairment of $826 million for the EL reporting unit, $428 million for the GMF reporting unit and $372 million for the ESB reporting unit. In addition, we recorded a $49 million impairment of in-process research and development (“IPR&D”) allocated to the EL reporting unit and a $152 million impairment related to completed technology allocated to the ESB reporting unit.

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As of October 31, 2023, we performed our annual impairment assessment of goodwill by bypassing the qualitative assessment and using a quantitative assessment for all of our reporting units. As a result of higher WACC mainly caused by overall higher market interest rates, we recorded additional non-cash goodwill impairment charges of $48 million and $13 million at our EL and ESB reporting units, respectively. There was no goodwill impairment at any of our other reporting units. In addition, we recorded a $14 million impairment of IPR&D allocated to the EL reporting unit.

We will continue to monitor and evaluate the carrying value of goodwill and intangible assets. If market and economic conditions or business performance deteriorate, this could increase the likelihood of us recording an impairment charge. Our stock price and any estimated control premium are factors affecting the assessment of the fair value of our underlying reporting units for purposes of performing any goodwill impairment assessment.

Income Taxes. We evaluate the realizability of our net deferred tax assets and assess the need for a valuation allowance on a quarterly basis. The future benefit to be derived from our deferred tax assets is dependent upon our ability to generate sufficient future taxable income in each jurisdiction of the right type to realize the assets. We record a valuation allowance to reduce our net deferred tax assets to the amount that is expected to be realized. To the extent we establish a valuation allowance, or determine that a valuation allowance is no longer needed, an expense or benefit is recorded within the provision for income taxes line in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive (loss) income.

We are subject to the income tax laws and regulations of the many jurisdictions in which we operate. These tax laws and regulations are complex and involve uncertainties in the application to our facts and circumstances that may be open to interpretation. Accounting for income taxes requires a two-step approach to recognize and measure uncertain tax positions. The first step is to evaluate the tax position for recognition by determining if, based on the technical merits, it is more likely than not that the position will be sustained upon audit, including resolutions of related appeals or litigation processes, if any. The second step is to measure the tax benefit as the largest amount that is more than 50% likely of being realized upon ultimate settlement. This process is inherently subjective since it requires our assessment of the probability of future outcomes. We re-evaluate these uncertain tax positions on a quarterly basis based on factors including, but not limited to, changes in facts or circumstances, changes in tax law, effectively settled issues under audit and new audit activity. Any change in these factors could result in the recognition of a tax benefit or an additional charge to the tax provision.

Derivatives. As a result of our global operating activities and variable interest rate borrowings, we are exposed to market risks from changes in foreign currency exchange rates and interest rates, which may adversely affect our operating results and financial position. We address these risks through a risk management program that includes the use of derivative financial instruments. We operate the program pursuant to documented corporate risk management policies. We enter into derivative instruments for risk management purposes only, including derivatives designated as hedging instruments and those utilized as economic hedges. We do not enter into derivative instruments for trading or speculative purposes.

We have used derivative instruments, such as foreign exchange forward contracts, options and net investment hedges, to manage certain foreign currency exposure, and interest rate swaps and interest rate caps to manage certain interest rate exposure. Changes in fair value of derivative instruments are recognized in the consolidated statement of operations or, if hedge accounting is applied, in Other Comprehensive (Loss) Income (“OCI”) for the effective portion of the changes in fair value. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in the consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities. All derivatives are stated at fair value in the consolidated balance sheets.

Accounting principles for qualifying hedges require detailed documentation that describes the relationship between the hedging instrument and the hedged item, including, but not limited to, the risk management objectives and hedging strategy and the methods to assess the effectiveness of the hedging relationship. We assess the hedging relationships, both at the inception of the hedge and on an ongoing basis, using either the critical terms matching approach or a regression analysis approach to determine whether the designated hedging instrument is highly effective in offsetting changes in the value of the hedged item.

By nature, all financial instruments involve market and credit risks. We enter into derivative instruments with a diversified group of major investment grade financial institutions, for which no collateral is required. We have policies to monitor the credit risk of these counterparties. While there can be no assurance, we do not anticipate any material non-performance by any of these counterparties.

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Results of Operations

The following table sets forth, for the periods indicated, the percentage of total net revenues of certain line items included in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income (loss) data:

Year Ended December 31, 2024 compared to 2023

The following table sets forth our net revenues for products and services:

Net Revenues

Net product revenues decreased $76 million in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily driven by a decrease of $63 million in net product revenues from our specialty industrial market mainly due to lower solar, general industrial, and material processing sales and a decrease of $12 million in net product revenues from our electronics and packaging market, primarily due to lower equipment revenues at MSD as customers postponed investment decisions and also as a result of lower palladium prices for chemistry products which lower prices are passed through to our customers in our electronics component business at MSD, partially offset by volume increases in chemistry materials. The decrease in our electronics and packaging market was partially offset by an increase in industry demand for PCB via drilling systems at PSD and an increase in the volume of chemistry materials at MSD.

Net service revenues consisted mainly of fees for services related to the maintenance and repair of our products, sales of spare parts, and installation and training. Net service revenues increased $40 million in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to an increase in net service revenues in our semiconductor market, mainly at VSD, and an increase of net service revenues in our electronics and packaging market, mainly at PSD and MSD.

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Total international net revenues, including product and service, were $2.8 billion in 2024, compared to $2.7 billion in 2023.

The following table sets forth our net revenues by reportable segment:

Net Revenues

Net revenues for our VSD segment decreased $56 million in 2024, compared to 2023, mainly due to a decrease in revenues from customers in the specialty industrial market, as a result of lower solar and general industrial sales, as well as a decrease in net revenues in the semiconductor market as a result of continued softened demand for semiconductor capital equipment in the deposition and etching tool markets for memory applications, particularly NAND.

Net revenues for our PSD segment increased $45 million in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily as a result of an increase in sales of our lithography, metrology and inspection products, that are a part of our World Class Optics portfolio, in our semiconductor market and an increase in industry demand for PCB via drilling systems in our electronics and packaging market.

Net revenues for our MSD segment decreased $25 million in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to lower equipment revenue in the electronics and packaging market, as customers postponed certain investment decisions, and a decrease in chemistry sales in specialty industrial markets, primarily due to lower palladium prices, which lower prices are passed through to our customers, and the negative impact of foreign exchange, partially offset by volume increases in chemistry materials.

The following table sets forth gross profit as a percentage of net revenues by product and service:

Gross Profit Excluding Amortization

Gross profit as a percentage of net product revenues increased by 1.4 percentage points in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to favorable product mix, higher factory utilization and lower excess and obsolete inventory charges, partially offset by higher warranty costs.

Gross profit as a percentage of net service revenues increased by 8.3 percentage points in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to favorable product mix and lower direct labor and overhead cost on repairs.

The following table sets forth gross profit as a percentage of net revenues by reportable segment:

Gross Profit Excluding Amortization

Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for VSD increased in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to higher factory utilization and lower material costs, partially offset by unfavorable product mix, higher excess and obsolete inventory charges and higher warranty costs.

Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for PSD increased in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to higher revenue volumes, lower excess and obsolete inventory charges and lower freight and duty costs, partially offset by unfavorable product mix.

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Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for MSD increased in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to lower palladium prices and favorable product mix, partially offset by higher warranty costs.

The above gross profit percentages by division exclude an immaterial amount of unallocated corporate expense included in the total gross profit percentage.

Research and Development

Research and development expenses decreased $17 million in 2024, compared to 2023, mainly due to decreases of $8 million in compensation-related costs, including salaries, fringe and variable compensation expenses, a decrease of $2 million in engineering consulting fees, and a decrease of $5 million of research and development credits and government assistance received in 2024.

Our research and development efforts are primarily focused on developing and improving our instruments, components, chemistry, subsystems, systems and process control solutions to improve process performance and productivity. We have thousands of products, and our research and development efforts primarily consist of a large number of projects related to these products, none of which is individually material to us. Projects typically have a duration of 3 to 36 months but may be extended for development of new products.

We continue to make product advancements designed to meet our customers’ evolving needs. We have developed, and continue to develop, new products designed to address industry trends, such as the rising demand for more complex hardware architecture related to increasing investments in artificial intelligence, the shrinking of integrated circuit critical dimensions and technology inflections, and, in the flat panel display and solar markets, the transition to larger substrate sizes, which require more advanced processing and process control technology, the continuing drive toward more complex and accurate components and devices within the handset and tablet market, the transition to 5G for both devices and infrastructure, the growth in units and via counts in the high density interconnect PCB drilling market, and the transition from internal combustion to electric vehicles. In addition, we have developed, and continue to develop, products that support the migration to new classes of materials, ultra-thin layers, and 3D structures that are used in small geometry manufacturing. In our chemistry and equipment plating businesses, a majority of our research and development investment supports existing customers’ product improvement needs and their short-term research and development goals, which enables us to pioneer new high-value solutions while limiting commercial risk. Research and development expenses consist primarily of salaries and related expenses for personnel engaged in research and development, fees paid to consultants, material costs for prototypes and other expenses related to the design, development, testing and enhancement of our products.

We believe that the continued investment in research and development and ongoing development of new products are essential to the expansion of our markets. We expect to continue to make significant investment in research and development activities. We are subject to risks from products not being developed in a timely manner, as well as from rapidly changing customer requirements and competitive threats from other companies and technologies. Our success depends on many of our products being designed into new generations of equipment for the semiconductor, electronics and packaging, and specialty industrial markets. We seek to develop products that are technologically advanced so that they are positioned to be chosen for use in each successive generation of semiconductor capital equipment and advanced markets applications. If our products are not chosen to be designed into our customers’ products, our net revenues may be reduced during the lifespan of those products.

Selling, General and Administrative

Selling, general and administrative expenses decreased $1 million during 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to a $20 million decrease in compensation-related costs, mainly related to salaries, fringe and variable compensation and a $14 million reduction in net costs mostly incurred in 2023 due to the ransomware event in February 2023. These savings were partially offset by increases of $14 million in information technology investments, $7 million in consulting and professional fees, $5 million in non-income related taxes, $2 million in lease expenses and $2 million in travel expenses.

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Acquisition and Integration Costs

Acquisition and integration costs incurred during 2024 and 2023 were related to consulting and professional fees related to the acquisition of Atotech Limited (“Atotech”) in August 2022 (the “Atotech Acquisition”).

Restructuring and other

Restructuring and other charges incurred in 2024 and 2023 were primarily related to severance costs as a result of global cost-saving initiatives.

Fees and expenses related to amendments to the Term Loan Facility

In 2024, we recorded fees and expenses related to (i) the Second Amendment to Credit Agreement, dated as of January 22, 2024, by and among us as parent borrower, the other loan parties party thereto, JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as administrative agent, and each lender party thereto (the “Second Amendment”) and (ii) the Fourth Amendment to Credit Agreement, dated as of July 23, 2024, by and among us as parent borrower, the other loan parties party thereto, JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as administrative agent, and each lender party thereto (the “Fourth Amendment”).

In 2023, we recorded fees and expenses related to the First Amendment to Credit Agreement, dated as of October 3, 2023, by and among us as parent borrower, the other loan parties party thereto, JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as administrative agent, and each lender party thereto (the “First Amendment”).

Amortization of Intangible Assets

Amortization of intangible assets decreased $50 million in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily due to the backlog-related intangible assets related to MSD being fully amortized in 2023, and the write-off of completed technology at our ESB reporting unit of PSD in the second quarter of 2023.

Goodwill and Intangible Asset Impairments

During the quarter ended June 30, 2023, as a result of softer industry demand, particularly in the personal computer and smartphone markets, we concluded there was a triggering event at our EL and GMF reporting units, which together constitute MSD, and the ESB reporting unit of PSD. We concluded there was no triggering event at our other reporting units within VSD and PSD.

For the EL, GMF and ESB reporting units, we performed a quantitative assessment of goodwill using a combination of a market approach and income approach. Fair value estimates are based on a complex series of judgments about future events and uncertainties and rely heavily on estimates and assumptions that have been deemed reasonable by our management.

This quantitative assessment resulted in a non-cash goodwill impairment of $826 million for the EL reporting unit, $428 million for the GMF reporting unit and $372 million for the ESB reporting unit. In addition, we recorded a $49 million impairment

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of IPR&D allocated to the EL reporting unit and a $152 million impairment related to completed technology allocated to the ESB reporting unit.

On October 31, 2023, we performed our annual goodwill and intangible asset impairment assessment. As a result of higher WACC mainly caused by overall higher market interest rates, we recorded additional non-cash goodwill impairment charges of $48 million and $13 million at our EL and ESB reporting units, respectively. In addition, we recorded a $14 million impairment of IPR&D allocated to the EL reporting unit. There were no impairments at any of our other reporting units.

On October 31, 2024, we again performed our annual goodwill and intangible asset impairment assessment using a qualitative assessment for all of our reporting units. We determined that it was more likely than not that the fair values were more than the carrying values for each of the reporting units.

We will continue to monitor and evaluate the carrying value of goodwill and intangible assets. If market and economic conditions or business performance deteriorate, the likelihood that we would record an impairment charge would increase, which could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and operating results.

Gain on Sale of Long-Lived Assets

In 2023, we recorded a gain as a result of receiving cash from the sale of a minority interest investment in a private company.

Interest Expense, Net

Interest expense, net, decreased by $76 million in 2024, compared to 2023, primarily as a result of the issuance of $1.4 billion of Convertible Notes (as defined and described further below under “Convertible Notes”) in May 2024, at a coupon rate of 1.25%, $1.2 billion of the proceeds of which were used to pay down our loans under the Term Loan Facility, which had an interest rate of approximately 7.8%. In addition in July 2024, we entered into the Fourth Amendment, which decreased the applicable margin for both the USD Tranche B and the EUR Tranche B (each as defined and described further below under “Credit Facilities”) by 0.25%. In addition, interest expense, net was lower in 2024 than 2023 as a result of the voluntary prepayments of $100 million in October 2023, $50 million in February 2024, $50 million in April 2024, $110 million in July 2024 and $216 million in October 2024, on loans under the Term Loan Facility.

Loss on extinguishment of debt

We recorded a loss on extinguishment of debt as a result of the acceleration of deferred financing and original issue discount costs associated with the Second Amendment in January 2024, Convertible Notes in May 2024 and Fourth Amendment in July 2024. In addition, we recorded a loss on extinguishment of debt as a result of the acceleration of deferred financing and original issue discount costs as a result of voluntary prepayments under the Term Loan Facility made in 2024, as described above.

In October 2023, in connection with the First Amendment and the voluntary prepayment of $100 million, we recorded a loss on extinguishment of debt as a result of the acceleration of deferred financing and original issue discount costs.

Other (Income) Expense, Net

Other (income) expense, net, for 2024 and 2023 primarily relate to net foreign exchange and fair value gains and losses.

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(Benefit) Provision for Income Taxes

Our effective tax rates for 2024 and 2023 were (5.7)% and 4.5%, respectively. Our effective tax rate for 2024 was lower than the U.S. statutory tax rate, mainly due to the U.S. deduction for foreign derived intangible income (“FDII”) and valuation allowance release partially offset by the increase in withholding taxes.

Our effective tax rate for 2023 was lower than the U.S. statutory tax rate, mainly due to the impairment of goodwill and intangible assets.

As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, total gross unrecognized tax benefits, which excludes interest and penalties, was $94 million and $86 million, respectively. The net increase was primarily due to the addition of income tax reserves related to intercompany transactions.

We accrue interest and, if applicable, penalties for any uncertain tax positions. Interest and penalties are classified as a component of income tax expense. As of December 31, 2024 and 2023, we accrued interest on unrecognized tax benefits of approximately $8 million and $7 million, respectively.

Over the next 12 months, it is reasonably possible that we may recognize approximately $3 million of previously net unrecognized tax benefits, excluding interest and penalties, related to various U.S. federal, state and foreign tax positions, primarily due to the expiration of statutes of limitations.

We are subject to examination by U.S. federal, state and foreign tax authorities. The U.S. federal statute of limitations remains open for tax years 2020 through the present. The statute of limitations for our tax filings in other jurisdictions varies between fiscal years 2019 through the present. We also have certain prior year federal credit carryforwards and state tax loss and credit carryforwards that are subject to examination to the extent used in an open year.

Our future effective tax rate depends on various factors, including the impact of tax legislation, further interpretations and guidance from U.S. federal and state governments on the impact of proposed regulations issued by the Internal Revenue Service, as well as the geographic composition of our pre-tax income and changes in income tax reserves for unrecognized tax benefits. While we believe we have adequately provided for all tax positions, amounts asserted by taxing authorities could materially differ from our accrued positions as a result of uncertain and complex application of tax laws and regulations. Additionally, the recognition and measurement of certain tax benefits include estimates and judgment by management. Accordingly, we could record additional provisions or benefits for U.S. federal, state, and foreign tax matters in future periods as new information becomes available.

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (“OECD”) and participating OECD member countries continue to work toward the enactment of a 15% global minimum corporate tax rate for large multinational enterprise groups, also known as "Pillar Two". Many of the participating countries have enacted legislation that became effective beginning in 2024, while other countries continue to work on defining the underlying rules and administrative procedures. Although the enacted and effective legislation in some countries was applicable to us as of January 1, 2024, and increased our effective income tax rate, the increase did not have a material impact on our overall results of operations or cash flows. We will continue to monitor and evaluate the impacts of the developing legislation.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Cash and cash equivalents at December 31, 2024 and 2023 totaled $714 million and $875 million, respectively. The primary driver of our current and anticipated future cash flows is, and we expect will continue to be, cash generated from operations, consisting primarily of our net income (loss), excluding non-cash charges and changes in operating assets and liabilities.

Our total cash and cash equivalents at December 31, 2024 consisted of $268 million held in the United States and $446 million held by our foreign subsidiaries. We believe that our current cash and investments position and available borrowing capacity, together with the cash anticipated to be generated from our operations, will be sufficient to satisfy our estimated working capital, planned capital expenditure requirements, payments of debt, and any future cash dividends declared by our Board of Directors or share repurchases through at least the next 12 months and the foreseeable future.

In periods when our sales are growing, higher sales to customers will result in increased trade receivables, and inventories will generally increase as we build products for future sales. This may result in lower cash generated from operations. Conversely, in periods when our sales are declining, our trade accounts receivable and inventory balances will generally decrease, resulting in increased cash from operations.

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Net cash provided by operating activities was $528 million for 2024 and resulted from net income of $190 million, which included non-cash charges of $334 million, offset by a net decrease in working capital of $4 million. The net decrease in working capital was primarily due to an increase in income taxes payable of $49 million, an increase in accounts payable of $21 million, a decrease in other current and non-current assets of $25 million, primarily related to a decrease in right of use assets, and a decrease in inventory of $20 million. This net decrease in working capital was partially offset by a decrease in other current and non-current liabilities of $43 million, a decrease in current and non-current accrued compensation of $32 million as a result of lower variable compensation and an increase in accounts receivable of $36 million.

Net cash provided by operating activities was $319 million for 2023 and resulted from a net loss of $1,841 million, which included non-cash charges of $2,259 million, mainly as a result of goodwill and intangible asset impairment charges of $1,902 million, offset by a net increase in working capital of $99 million. The net increase in working capital was primarily due to a decrease in accounts payable of $99 million, a decrease in income taxes payable of $64 million and an increase in inventory of $76 million. This net increase in working capital was partially offset by a decrease in accounts receivable of $114 million, as a result of lower business levels, and a decrease in other current and non-current assets of $50 million, primarily as a result of a decrease in right of use assets of $31 million, and a decrease in other current and non-current assets of $19 million.

Net cash used in investing activities was $117 million for 2024, consisting primarily of $118 million in capital expenditures.

Net cash used in investing activities was $84 million for 2023, consisting primarily of $87 million in capital expenditures, offset by $3 million in proceeds from the sale of long-lived assets.

Net cash used in financing activities was $549 million for 2024, primarily due to net proceeds from the issuance of Convertible Notes of $1.4 billion and incremental loans under the Term Loan Facility in an aggregate principal amount of $761 million. The proceeds of the incremental loans under the Term Loan Facility were used in part to prepay the USD Tranche A term loans outstanding under the Amended Credit Agreement (as defined and described further below under “Credit Facilities”) in full in an aggregate principal amount of $744 million, and the proceeds of the Convertible Notes were used in part to prepay a portion of the USD Tranche B loans in an aggregate principal amount of $1.2 billion. In addition, there were normal quarterly debt payments and voluntary prepayments that totaled $476 million. We also made payments of $167 million to purchase a capped call option related to the Convertible Notes, $33 million for debt financing costs and $59 million for dividends.

Net cash used in financing activities was $259 million for 2023, primarily due to $403 million of payments on our Term Loan Facility and $59 million of dividend payments, partially offset by $216 million in proceeds from our Term Loan Facility.

Holders of our common stock are entitled to receive dividends when and if they are declared by our Board of Directors. For the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023, we paid cash dividends of $59 million in the aggregate or $0.88 per share, respectively. Future dividend declarations, if any, as well as the record and payment dates for such dividends, are subject to the final determination of our Board of Directors.

On February 10, 2025, our Board of Directors declared a quarterly cash dividend of $0.22 per share to be paid on March 7, 2025 to shareholders of record as of February 24, 2025.

Credit Facilities

In connection with the completion of the Atotech Acquisition, on August 17, 2022 (the “Effective Date”) we entered into a credit agreement with JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as administrative agent and collateral agent, Barclays Bank PLC, and the lenders from time to time party thereto, which we have amended several times since (as amended, the “Amended Credit Agreement”). As of December 31, 2024, the Amended Credit Agreement provided for (i) a senior secured term loan facility comprised of two tranches: a $2.6 billion loan (the “USD Tranche B”) and a €596 million loan (the “Euro Tranche B” and together with the USD Tranche B, the “Term Loan Facility”) and (ii) a senior secured revolving credit facility of $675 million (the “Revolving Facility” and, together with the Term Loan Facility, the “Credit Facilities”), with the commitments under each of the foregoing facilities subject to increase from time to time subject to certain conditions.

As of December 31, 2024, borrowings under the Credit Facilities bore interest at a rate per annum equal to, at our option, any of the following, plus, in each case, an applicable margin: (a) with respect to the USD Tranche B and the Revolving Facility, (x) a base rate determined by reference to the highest of (1) the federal funds effective rate plus 0.50%, (2) the prime rate quoted in The Wall Street Journal, or (3) a forward-looking term rate based on the variable secured overnight financing rate (“Term SOFR”) (plus an applicable credit spread adjustment) for an interest period of one month, plus 1.00%, and (y) a Term SOFR rate (plus an applicable credit spread adjustment) for the interest period relevant to such borrowing, subject to a rate floor of (I) with respect to the USD Tranche B, 0.50% and (II) with respect to the Revolving Facility, 0.0%; and (b) with respect to the Euro Tranche B, a Euro Interbank Offered Rate (“EURIBOR”) rate determined by reference to the costs of funds for Euro deposits for the interest period relevant to such borrowing adjusted for certain additional costs, subject to a EURIBOR rate floor of 0.0%. As of December 31, 2024, the applicable margins for borrowings under the Credit Facilities were (i) under the USD Tranche B and the Revolving

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Facility, 1.25% with respect to base rate borrowings and 2.25% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings and (ii) under the Euro Tranche B, 2.75%.

In addition to paying interest on outstanding principal under the Credit Facilities, we are required to pay a commitment fee in respect of the unutilized commitments under the Revolving Facility. The commitment fee is subject to adjustment based on our first lien net leverage ratio as of the end of the preceding fiscal quarter. We must also pay customary letter of credit fees and agency fees. As of December 31, 2024, the commitment fee was 0.25% per annum, representing a downward adjustment from 0.375% as of June 30, 2024.

As of December 31, 2024, the principal outstanding on the Term Loan Facility was $3.2 billion, and the weighted average interest rate was 6.4%. The Revolving Facility has a maturity date in August 2027 while the USD Tranche B and Euro Tranche B have a maturity date in August 2029. As of December 31, 2024, there were no borrowings under the Revolving Facility.

We are required to make scheduled quarterly principal payments equal to approximately $10 million with respect to the USD Tranche B and approximately €2 million with respect to the Euro Tranche B, in each case with the balance due thereunder on the seventh anniversary of the Effective Date. There is no scheduled amortization under the Revolving Facility. Any principal amount outstanding under the Revolving Facility is due and payable in full on the fifth anniversary of the Effective Date.

Under the Amended Credit Agreement, we are required to prepay outstanding term loans, subject to certain exceptions, with portions of our annual excess cash flow as well as with the net cash proceeds of certain of its asset sales, certain casualty and condemnation events and the incurrence or issuances of certain debt. If at any time the aggregate amount of outstanding loans, unreimbursed letter of credit drawings and undrawn letters of credit under the Revolving Facility exceeds the aggregate commitments under the Revolving Facility, we are required to repay outstanding loans and/or cash collateralize letters of credit, with no reduction of the commitment amount.

We may voluntarily prepay, and have voluntarily repaid, outstanding loans under the Credit Facilities from time to time, subject to certain conditions, without premium or penalty other than customary “breakage” costs with respect to Term SOFR or EURIBOR loans and any prepayment premium that might be applicable to repayments we make prior to July 24, 2025. Additionally, we may voluntarily reduce the unutilized portion of the commitment amount under the Revolving Facility.

All obligations under the Credit Facilities are guaranteed by certain of our wholly-owned domestic subsidiaries and are required to be guaranteed by certain of our future wholly-owned domestic subsidiaries and are secured by substantially all of our assets and the assets of such subsidiaries, subject to certain exceptions and exclusions.

Under the Amended Credit Agreement, we have the ability to incur additional incremental debt facilities in an amount up to (x) the greater of (1) $1,011 million and (2) 75% of consolidated last twelve months earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization, plus (y) an amount equal to the sum of all voluntary prepayments of term loans under the Term Loan Facility, plus (z) an additional unlimited amount subject to pro forma compliance with certain leverage ratio tests (based on the security and priority of such incremental debt).

The Amended Credit Agreement contains customary representations and warranties, covenants and provisions relating to events of default. As of December 31, 2024, we were in compliance with all covenants under the Amended Credit Agreement. The USD Tranche B and the Euro Tranche B are not subject to financial maintenance covenants.

2025 Amendments and Prepayment of Credit Facilities

On January 24, 2025 (the “Fifth Amendment Effective Date”), we entered into the Fifth Amendment to Credit Agreement (the “Fifth Amendment”). Pursuant to the Fifth Amendment, we (i) refinanced our existing USD Tranche B loan and Euro Tranche B loan with a new $2.5 billion USD Tranche B loan and a new €596 million Euro Tranche B loan, (ii) decreased the applicable margin for the USD Tranche B from 2.25% to 2.00% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings and from 1.25% to 1.00% with respect to base rate borrowings, (iii) decreased the applicable margin for the Euro Tranche B from 2.75% to 2.50% and (iv) extended the period during which a 1.00% prepayment premium may be required if we prepay any loans under the USD Tranche B or the Euro Tranche B in connection with a repricing transaction until the date that is six months following the Fifth Amendment Effective Date. The repriced USD Tranche B loan and Euro Tranche B loan were issued without original issue discount. In connection with the execution of the Fifth Amendment, we paid customary fees and expenses to JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A.

On January 24, 2025, concurrently with the effectiveness of the Fifth Amendment, we made a voluntary prepayment of $100 million principal amount to the USD Tranche B loan, reducing the principal from $2.6 billion to $2.5 billion.

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Convertible Notes

On May 16, 2024, we completed a private offering of $1.4 billion aggregate principal amount of convertible senior notes due 2030 (the “Convertible Notes”). The Convertible Notes were sold in a private placement under a purchase agreement, dated as of May 13, 2024, entered into by and among us and Morgan Stanley & Co. LLC, J.P. Morgan Securities LLC, BofA Securities, Inc. and Mizuho Securities USA LLC, as representatives of the several initial purchasers named therein, for resale to persons reasonably believed to be qualified institutional buyers in reliance on Rule 144A under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended.

The net proceeds from the offering were approximately $1.4 billion after deducting the initial purchasers’ discounts and commissions and estimated offering expenses paid by us. We used approximately $167 million of the net proceeds from the offering to pay the cost of the capped call transactions described below. We used the remaining net proceeds from the offering to repay approximately $1.2 billion in borrowings outstanding under the USD Tranche B, together with accrued interest, as well as for general corporate purposes. As a result of the repayment, we recorded a $38 million loss on extinguishment of debt.

Indenture and the Convertible Notes

On May 16, 2024, we entered into an indenture (the “Indenture”) with respect to the Convertible Notes with U.S. Bank Trust Company, National Association, as trustee. Under the Indenture, the Convertible Notes are senior unsecured obligations of ours and bear interest at a coupon rate of 1.25% per annum, with interest payable semiannually in arrears on June 1 and December 1 of each year, beginning on December 1, 2024. The Convertible Notes will mature on June 1, 2030, unless earlier converted, redeemed or repurchased in accordance with their terms.

Subject to certain conditions, on or after June 5, 2027, we may redeem for cash all or any portion of the Convertible Notes at a redemption price equal to 100% of the principal amount of the Convertible Notes to be redeemed, plus accrued and unpaid interest to, but excluding, the redemption date, if the last reported sale price of our common stock has been at least 130% of the conversion price then in effect for at least 20 trading days (whether or not consecutive) during the period of 30 consecutive trading days ending on, and including, the trading day immediately preceding the date the notice of redemption is sent.

The conversion rate for the Convertible Notes is initially 6.4799 shares of our common stock per one thousand dollars principal amount of Notes, which is equivalent to an initial conversion price of approximately $154.32 per share. The conversion rate is subject to adjustment upon the occurrence of certain events.

Upon conversion, we will pay cash up to the aggregate principal amount of the Convertible Notes to be converted and pay or deliver, as the case may be, cash, shares of common stock or a combination of cash and shares of common stock, at our election, in respect of the remainder, if any, of our conversion obligation in excess of the aggregate principal amount of the Convertible Notes being converted. Prior to March 1, 2030, noteholders may convert all or any portion of their Convertible Notes only upon the occurrence of certain events and during certain periods, and thereafter, at any time until the second scheduled trading day immediately preceding the maturity date.

If we undergo a fundamental change (as defined in the Indenture) prior to the maturity date of the Convertible Notes, holders may require us to repurchase for cash all or any portion of their Convertible Notes at a fundamental change repurchase price equal to 100% of the principal amount of the Convertible Notes to be repurchased, plus any accrued and unpaid interest to, but excluding, the fundamental change repurchase date.

The Indenture contains customary terms and covenants, including that upon certain events of default that are occurring and continuing, either the trustee or the holders of at least 25% in aggregate principal amount of the outstanding Convertible Notes may declare 100% of the principal of, and accrued and unpaid interest, if any, on, all the Convertible Notes to be due and payable.

As of December 31, 2024, the Convertible Notes are classified as a long-term liability, net of issuances costs, on the consolidated balance sheet. The Convertible Notes were issued at par and costs associated with the issuance of the Convertible Notes are amortized to interest expense over the contractual term of the Convertible Notes. As of December 31, 2024, the effective interest rate of the Convertible Notes was 1.56%.

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Capped Call Transactions

On May 13, 2024, in connection with the pricing of the Convertible Notes, and on May 14, 2024, in connection with the exercise in full by the initial purchasers of their option to purchase additional Convertible Notes, we entered into privately negotiated capped call transactions with certain of the initial purchasers of the Convertible Notes or their respective affiliates and other financial institutions. The capped call transactions are expected generally to reduce the potential dilution to our common stock upon conversion of any Convertible Notes and/or offset any cash payments that we are required to make in excess of the principal amount of any converted Convertible Notes, as the case may be, with such reduction and/or offset subject to a cap initially equal to $237.42 per share (which represents a premium of 100% over the last reported sale price of $118.71 per share of our common stock on The Nasdaq Global Select Market on May 13, 2024), and is subject to customary adjustments under the terms of the capped call transactions.

Lines of Credit and Borrowing Arrangements

Certain of our Japanese subsidiaries have lines of credit and a financing facility with various financial institutions, many of which generally expire and are renewed at three-month intervals with the remaining having no expiration date. The lines of credit and financing facility provided for aggregate borrowings as of December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023 of up to an equivalent of $19 million and $14 million, respectively. There were no borrowings outstanding under these arrangements at December 31, 2024 or December 31, 2023.

Derivatives

We enter into derivative instruments for risk management purposes only, including derivatives designated as hedging instruments and those utilized as economic hedges. We operate internationally, and in the normal course of business, are exposed to fluctuations in interest rates and foreign exchange rates. These fluctuations can increase the costs of financing, investing, and operating the business. We have used derivative instruments, such as foreign exchange forward contracts, options, and net investment hedges, to manage certain foreign currency exposure, and interest rate swaps and caps to manage certain interest rate exposure. We do not enter into derivative instruments for trading or speculative purposes.

By nature, all financial instruments involve market and credit risks. We enter into derivative instruments with major investment grade financial institutions and no collateral is required. We have policies to monitor the credit risk of these counterparties. While there can be no assurance, we do not anticipate any material non-performance by any of these counterparties.

Interest Rate Swap and Interest Rate Cap Agreements

We have various interest rate swap agreements maturing through January 31, 2029 that exchange a one-month forward-looking term rate based on Term SOFR paid on the outstanding balance of our USD Term Loan Facility, to a fixed rate. The notional value of the agreements was $2,600 million and $2,300 million as of December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, respectively. We acquired USD London Interbank Offered Rate (“USD LIBOR”) based interest rate cap agreements as a result of the Atotech Acquisition and had utilized these agreements to offset Term SOFR on our Term Loan Facility. The notional value of the agreements was $700 million as of December 31, 2023 and expired on January 31, 2024. Effective June 30, 2023, our USD LIBOR based interest rate caps were converted to Term SOFR. We also had two USD LIBOR based swaps that were converted to Term SOFR, effective June 30, 2023. The conversions from USD LIBOR to Term SOFR did not have a material impact on our results of operations.

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The interest rate swaps are recorded at fair value on the consolidated balance sheets and changes in the fair value are recognized in OCI. To the extent these arrangements are no longer effective hedges, the hedging relationship will be discontinued and changes in the fair value of the hedging instruments from the last assessment period that were effective up to the current period will be recorded immediately in earnings. Amounts previously recorded in OCI will remain in OCI and will be reclassified to earnings when the interest payments impact consolidated earnings. If we determine that the interest payments are unlikely to occur, amounts previously recorded in OCI will be reclassified to earnings immediately. Changes in the fair value of interest rate caps were recorded immediately in earnings, as we did not designate these instruments as hedges and therefore these instruments did not qualify for hedge accounting. There was a benefit on these derivatives of $3 million in 2023 and there was no net impact on these derivatives in 2024. The cash flows resulting from interest rate agreements are classified in cash flows from operating activities. We expect a gain of approximately $17 million to be reclassified from accumulated OCI into interest expense during the twelve months ending December 31, 2025 related to interest rate swaps.

Foreign Exchange Forward Contracts

We hedge a portion of our forecasted foreign currency denominated intercompany sales of inventory, over a maximum period of twenty-four months, using foreign exchange forward contracts accounted for as cash-flow hedges. To the extent these derivatives are effective in offsetting the variability of the hedged cash flows, and otherwise meet the hedge accounting criteria, changes in the derivatives’ fair value are not included in current earnings but are included in accumulated OCI in stockholders’ equity. These changes in fair value will subsequently be reclassified into earnings, as applicable, when the forecasted transaction occurs. To the extent that a previously designated hedging transaction is no longer an effective hedge, any ineffectiveness measured in the hedging relationship is recorded immediately in earnings in the period it occurs. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in the consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities.

We also enter into foreign exchange forward contracts to hedge against certain monetary asset and liability accounts on the consolidated balance sheet to mitigate the risk associated with certain foreign currency transactions in the ordinary course of business. These derivatives are not designated as cash flow hedging instruments and gains or losses from these derivatives are recorded immediately in other (income) expense, net. The net foreign exchange gain on these derivatives was $1 million in 2024, compared to a loss of $4 million in 2023. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in our consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities.

We had foreign exchange forward contracts designated as cash flow hedges with notional amounts totaling $74 million and $178 million outstanding at December 31, 2024 and at December 31, 2023, respectively, with the Japanese yen and the South Korean won being the largest notional contracts in both periods. We had foreign exchange forward contracts not designated as hedging instruments with notional amounts totaling $154 million and $155 million outstanding at December 31, 2024 and at December 31, 2023, respectively. The British pound and Chinese yuan were the largest notional contracts for 2024, and the Euro and British pound were the largest notional contracts for 2023 for balance sheet hedges not designated as a hedging instrument.

As of December 31, 2024, the unrealized gain that will be reclassified from accumulated OCI to cost of revenues over the next twelve months is approximately $7 million. Gains and losses on foreign exchange forward contracts that qualify for hedge accounting are classified in cost of products in 2024 and 2023 and totaled gains of $6 million and $7 million, respectively. There were no ineffective portions of the derivatives recorded in 2024 and 2023.

Net Investment Hedge

We have designated certain Euro-denominated debt as a net investment hedge to hedge a portion of our net investments in certain of our entities with functional currencies denominated in the Euro. As of December 31, 2024, we designated as a net investment hedge €596 million in aggregate principal amount of our Euro Tranche B loan. For these nonderivative instruments, we defer recognition of the foreign currency remeasurement gains and losses within the foreign currency translation adjustment component of OCI.

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Contractual Obligations

As of December 31, 2024, we are a party to purchase commitments for certain inventory components and other equipment and services used in our normal operations totaling approximately $544 million. The majority of these purchase commitments covered by these arrangements are for periods of less than one year.

In addition, we have various operating leases for real estate and non-real estate items. The non-real estate leases are mainly comprised of automobiles but also include office equipment and other lower-valued items. We also have a small number of finance leases for real estate.

Future payments related to operating and finance leases are as follows:

Contractual maturities of our debt obligations as of December 31, 2024 are as follows:

We have a number of defined benefit pension plans, which cover some of our employees outside the United States. As of December 31, 2024, our estimated benefit payments over the next 10 years amount to $80 million. The majority of the benefit payments covered by these arrangements occurs after 2029.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU No. 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures, which focuses on the rate reconciliation and income taxes paid. ASU No. 2023-09 requires a public business entity (“PBE”) to disclose, on an annual basis, a tabular rate reconciliation using both percentages and currency amounts, broken out into specified categories with certain reconciling items further broken out by nature and jurisdiction to the extent those items exceed a specified threshold. In addition, all entities are required to disclose income taxes paid, net of refunds received disaggregated by federal, state/local, and foreign and by jurisdiction if the amount is at least 5% of total income tax payments, net of refunds received. For PBEs, the new standard is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2024, with early adoption permitted. An entity may apply the amendments in this ASU prospectively by providing the revised disclosures for the period ending December 31, 2025 and continuing to provide the pre-ASU disclosures for the prior periods or may apply the amendments retrospectively by providing the revised disclosures for all periods presented. We are currently evaluating the impact on the consolidated financial statement disclosures; however, adoption will not impact our consolidated balance sheets, cash flows or income statements.

Income Statement—Reporting Comprehensive Income—Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses

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In November 2024, the FASB issued ASU No. 2024-03, Income Statement—Reporting Comprehensive Income—Expense Disaggregation Disclosures (Subtopic 220-40): Disaggregation of Income Statement Expenses, which requires public companies to disclose, in interim and annual reporting periods, additional information about certain expenses in the notes to financial statements. The amendments in this ASU are effective for annual reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2026, and interim reporting periods beginning after December 15, 2027, with early adoption permitted. We are currently evaluating the impact on the consolidated financial statement disclosures; however, adoption will not impact our consolidated balance sheets, cash flows or income statements.

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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (“MD&A”) describes principal factors affecting the results of our operations, financial condition, cash flows and liquidity, as well as our critical accounting policies and estimates that require significant judgment and thus have the most significant potential impact on our Consolidated Financial Statements, and is intended to better allow investors to view the Company from management’s perspective. This section focuses on material events and uncertainties known to management that are reasonably likely to cause reported financial information not to be necessarily indicative of our future operating results or of our future financial condition. This section provides an analysis of our financial results for the year ended December 31, 2023 compared to the year ended December 31, 2022. For the discussion and analysis covering the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to the year ended December 31, 2021, please refer to “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” in Part II, Item 7 of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2022, as filed with the SEC on March 14, 2023.

Overview

We enable technologies that transform our world. We deliver foundational technology solutions to leading edge semiconductor manufacturing, electronics and packaging, and specialty industrial applications. We apply our broad science and engineering capabilities to create instruments, subsystems, systems, process control solutions and specialty chemicals technology that improve process performance, optimize productivity and enable unique innovations for many of the world's leading technology and industrial companies. Our solutions are critical to addressing the challenges of miniaturization and complexity in advanced device manufacturing by enabling increased power, speed, feature enhancement and optimized connectivity. Our solutions are also critical to addressing ever-increasing performance requirements across a wide array of specialty industrial applications.

Ransomware Event

On February 3, 2023, we identified that we had become subject to a ransomware event. We took immediate action to activate our incident response and business continuity protocols to contain the incident, including engaging appropriate incident response professionals and notifying law enforcement authorities. We then initiated the recovery phase, contained the incident, reopened our affected manufacturing and service operations and completed restoration of our information technology (“IT”) systems, including our enterprise resource planning systems.

Based on our investigation, we concluded ransomware actors encrypted certain of our systems by deploying malware. This incident required us to temporarily suspend operations at certain of our facilities and had a material impact in the first quarter of 2023 on our ability to process orders, ship products and provide service to our Vacuum Solutions Division (“VSD”) and Photonics Solutions Division (“PSD”) customers. As a result of our inability to fulfill orders, we estimated the ransomware event negatively impacted our revenue in the first quarter of 2023 by approximately $160 million. We recovered substantially all of this revenue in the second and third quarters of 2023, as we shipped orders that were delayed during the first quarter. The incident did not impact the operations of our Materials Solutions Division (“MSD”).

We engaged security specialists to assist in the review, assessment and remediation of our IT controls and strengthened access requirements and unauthorized access detection. We also implemented procedures to facilitate more timely restoration of our financial reporting systems.

As a result of the ransomware event, we incurred approximately $15 million of net costs for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023. These costs were primarily comprised of various third-party consulting services, including forensic experts, restoration experts, legal counsel, and other IT and accounting professional expenses, enhancements to our cybersecurity measures, costs to restore our systems and access our data, and employee-related expenses, including with respect to increased overtime. We expect to continue to incur these and other costs related to this incident in the future. As a result of the incident, we were previously subject to two lawsuits, and we may be subject to future litigation, investigations, claims or actions, in addition to fines, penalties, or other obligations related to impacted data, whether or not such data is misused. For additional information on the risks we face related to this incident and other cybersecurity incidents, refer to “Risk Factors—Risks Related to Cybersecurity, Data Privacy and Intellectual Property Protection” and “Risk Factors—Legal, Tax, Regulatory and Compliance Risks” in Part I, Item 1A of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Segments and Markets

We have three divisions, which are our reportable segments, known as VSD, PSD and MSD.

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VSD delivers foundational technology solutions to leading edge semiconductor manufacturing, electronics and packaging and specialty industrial applications. VSD products are derived from our core competencies in pressure measurement and control, flow measurement and control, gas and vapor delivery, gas composition analysis, electronic control technology, reactive gas generation and delivery, power generation and delivery, and vacuum technology.

PSD provides a broad range of instruments, components and subsystems to leading edge semiconductor manufacturing, electronics and packaging and specialty industrial applications. PSD products are derived from our core competencies in lasers, photonics, optics, temperature sensing, precision motion control and vibration control.

MSD develops leading process and manufacturing technologies for advanced surface modification, electroless and electrolytic plating, and surface finishing. Applying a comprehensive systems-and-solutions approach, MSD's portfolio includes chemistry, equipment, software, and services for innovative and high-technology applications in our electronics and packaging and specialty industrial markets.

Since our inception, we have focused on satisfying the needs of our customers by establishing long-term collaborative relationships. We have a diverse base of customers across our primary-served markets, which include semiconductor, electronics and packaging, and specialty industrial.

Semiconductor Market

MKS is a critical solutions provider for semiconductor manufacturing. Our products are used in major semiconductor processing steps, such as deposition, etching, cleaning, lithography, metrology, and inspection. The semiconductor industry continually faces new challenges as products become smaller, more powerful and highly mobile. Ultra-thin layers, smaller critical dimensions, new materials, 3D structures, and the ongoing need for higher yield and productivity drive the need for tighter process measurement and control, all of which MKS supports. We believe we are the broadest critical subsystem provider in the wafer fabrication equipment (“WFE”) ecosystem and address over 85% of the market. We have characterized our broad and unique offering as Surround the Wafer to reflect the technology enablement we provide across almost every major process in semiconductor manufacturing today.

Approximately 41% and 58% of our net revenues for 2023 and 2022, respectively, were from sales to customers in the semiconductor market. This decrease was primarily a result of the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition, as MSD only sells into our electronics and packaging and specialty industrial markets, as well as an overall decline in revenue from customers in our semiconductor market.

Net revenues from customers in our semiconductor market decreased by $562 million, or 28%, in 2023, compared to 2022, due primarily to a decrease of $541 million in VSD given decreased industry spending on deposition and etch equipment for memory applications, particularly NAND, where MKS is a critical solutions provider.

In general, the semiconductor capital equipment industry is subject to rapid demand shifts, which are difficult to predict, and we cannot be certain as to the timing or extent of future demand or any future softening in the semiconductor capital equipment industry. In addition to these rapid demand shifts, the semiconductor capital equipment industry is subject to significant trade restrictions.

In October 2022, the U.S. Department of Commerce's Bureau of Industry and Security (“BIS”) implemented new and novel restrictions related to end-uses in semiconductor, semiconductor manufacturing, supercomputer, and advanced computing, along with certain equipment used to develop and produce them, as well as controls around the activities of U.S. persons in certain markets, including China. These rules, which BIS amended in October 2023 (as amended, the “BIS Rules”), restrict our direct and indirect sales to U.S. Arms Embargoed Countries, including China and primarily impact our semiconductor market. As a result of the BIS Rules, we estimate our net revenues were reduced by approximately $200 to $250 million in 2023.

Electronics and Packaging Market

MKS is a foundational solutions provider for the electronics and packaging market. Our portfolio includes photonics components, laser drilling systems, electronics chemistries and plating equipment, that are critical for the manufacturing of PCBs and package substrates, and critical to wafer level packaging (“WLP”) applications. Similar to the semiconductor industry, the

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PCB, package substrate and WLP industries demand smaller features, greater density, and better performance. In addition, the electronics and packaging market also includes sales of our vacuum and photonics solutions for display manufacturing applications. We characterize our complementary offering of laser systems and chemistry solutions as Optimize the Interconnect, to reflect the unique technology enablement we provide at the Interconnect level within PCBs, package substrates and WLPs.

Approximately 25% and 15% of our net revenues for 2023 and 2022, respectively, were from sales to customers in our electronic and packaging market. This increase was primarily a result of the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition, as MSD only sells into our electronics and packaging and specialty industrial markets.

Net revenues from customers in our electronics and packaging market increased by $375 million, or 69%, in 2023 compared to 2022. This increase was driven primarily by the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition, with MSD net revenues increasing by $403 million. This increase was primarily offset by a decrease of $26 million in PSD net revenues, in part due to decreased industry demand for flexible PCB via drilling systems as customers have temporarily slowed capacity expansion. In addition, demand for flexible PCB via drilling systems, which are a part of PSD, and demand for chemistry solutions, which are a part of MSD, have softened due to a decline in end market demand for consumer electronics, such as smartphones and personal computers.

Specialty Industrial Market

MKS’ strategy in specialty industrial is to leverage our domain expertise and proprietary technologies across a broad array of applications in industrial technologies, life and health sciences, and research and defense markets.

Industrial Technologies

Industrial technologies encompasses a wide range of diverse applications, including chemistries for functional coatings, surface finishing and wear resistance in the automobile industry, vacuum solutions for synthetic diamond manufacturing and photonics for solar manufacturing. Other applications include vacuum and photonics solutions for light emitting diode and laser diode manufacturing.

Life and Health Sciences

Our products for life and health sciences are used in a diverse array of applications, including bioimaging, medical instrument sterilization, medical device manufacturing, analytical, diagnostic and surgical instrumentation, consumable medical supply manufacturing and pharmaceutical production.

Research and Defense

Our products for research and defense are sold to government, university and industrial laboratories for applications involving research and development in materials science, physical chemistry, photonics, optics and electronics materials. Our products are also sold for monitoring and defense applications, including surveillance, imaging and infrastructure protection.

Approximately 34% and 27% of our net revenues for 2023 and 2022, respectively, were from customers in our specialty industrial market. This increase was primarily a result of the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition, as MSD only sells into our electronics and packaging and specialty industrial markets.

Net revenues from customers in our specialty industrial market increased by $263 million, or 27%, in 2023, compared to 2022. This increase was driven primarily by the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition with MSD net revenues increasing by $286 million offset by decreases of $19 million and $4 million at VSD and PSD, respectively.

International Markets

A significant portion of our net revenues is from sales to customers in international markets. International net revenues accounted for approximately 66% and 58% of our total net revenues in 2023 and 2022, respectively. A significant portion of our international net revenues was from customers in China, Germany, Japan and South Korea. We expect that international revenues will continue to account for a significant percentage of total net revenues for the foreseeable future. Long-lived assets located outside of the United States accounted for approximately 58% and 57% of our total long-lived assets as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively. Long-lived assets include property, plant and equipment, net, right-of-use assets, and certain other assets.

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Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

MD&A discusses our Consolidated Financial Statements, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (“U.S. GAAP”). The preparation of these financial statements requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. On an ongoing basis, we evaluate our estimates and judgments, including those related to revenue recognition, inventory, warranty costs, pension plan valuations, stock-based compensation expense, intangible assets, goodwill and other long-lived assets and income taxes. We base our estimates and judgments on historical experience and on various other factors that are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

We believe the following critical accounting policies affect the most significant judgments, assumptions and estimates we use in preparing our Consolidated Financial Statements:

Revenue Recognition. We account for revenue using Accounting Standards Codification 606, “Revenue from Contracts with Customers” (“ASC Topic 606”). We apply ASC Topic 606 using the following steps:

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Identify the contract with a customer

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Identify the performance obligations in the contract

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Determine the transaction price

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Allocate the transaction price to performance obligations in the contract

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Recognize revenue when or as we satisfy a performance obligation

Revenue is recognized when or as obligations under the terms of a contract with our customer have been satisfied and control has transferred to the customer. The majority of our performance obligations, and associated revenue, are transferred to customers at a point in time, generally upon shipment of a product to the customer or receipt of the product by the customer and without significant judgments. We recognize revenue over time for contracts relating to the manufacturing, modifications and retrofits of our plating equipment, as the equipment is built to customer specification, and we have an enforceable right to payment for the performance completed to date. For these sales, we use the cost-to-cost input method to measure progress. In cases, where cost-to-cost is not proportionate to our progress in satisfying the performance obligation because of uninstalled materials, we adjust the measure of progress and recognize revenue to the extent of cost incurred to satisfy the performance obligation under the contract. Revenue from customized products with no alternative future use to us, and that have an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date, is also recorded over time. We consider this to be a faithful depiction of the transfer to the customer of revenue over time as the work is performed or service is delivered. Adjustments for custom products were not material for 2023, 2022 or 2021.

Installation services, other than those related to our plating equipment, are not significant, are usually completed in a short period of time and, therefore, are recorded at a point in time when the installation services are completed, rather than over time, as they are not material. Extended warranty, service contracts, and repair services, which are transferred to the customer over time, are recorded as revenue as the services are performed. For repair services, we make an accrual at each quarter end based upon historical repair times within our product groups to record revenue based upon the estimated number of days completed to date, which is consistent with ratable recognition.

Revenue is measured as the amount of consideration we expect to receive in exchange for transferring goods or providing services. Performance obligations promised in a contract are identified based on the products or services that will be transferred to the customer that are both capable of being distinct, whereby the customer can benefit from the product or service either on its own or together with other resources that are readily available from third parties or from us, and are distinct in the context of the contract, whereby the transfer of the product or service is separately identifiable from other promises in the contract. Sales tax, value add tax, and other taxes we collect concurrent with revenue-producing activities are excluded from revenue. Our normal payment terms are 30 to 60 days but vary by the type and location of our customers and the products or services offered. The time between invoicing and when payment is due is not significant. For certain products and services and customer types, we require payment before the products are delivered to, or the services are performed for, the customer. None of our contracts in each of the periods presented contained a significant financing component.

We periodically enter into contracts with our customers in which a customer may purchase a combination of goods and or services, such as products with installation services or extended warranties. These contracts include multiple deliverables that we evaluate to determine if the deliverables are separate performance obligations. Once we determine the performance obligations, we then determine the transaction price, which includes estimating the amount of variable consideration to be included in the

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transaction price, if any. To the extent the transaction price includes variable consideration, we estimate the amount of variable consideration that should be included in the transaction price utilizing either the expected value method or the most likely amount method, depending on the method we expect to better predict the amount of consideration to which we will be entitled. There are no constraints on the variable consideration recorded. We then allocate the transaction price to each performance obligation in the contract based on a relative stand-alone selling price charged separately to customers or using an expected cost-plus margin method. The corresponding revenues are recognized when or as the related performance obligations are satisfied, which are noted above. The impact of variable consideration was immaterial in each of the periods presented.

Our standard assurance warranty is normally 12 to 24 months. We sell separately priced service contracts and extended warranty contracts related to certain of our products, in particular related to our plating and laser-based products. These separately priced contracts generally range from 12 to 60 months. We normally receive payment at the inception of the contract and recognize revenue over the term of the contract in proportion to the costs expected to be incurred in satisfying the obligations under the contract. We have elected to use the practical expedient related to disclosing remaining performance obligations as of December 31, 2023 and 2022, as the majority have a duration of less than one year.

We monitor and track the amount of product returns, provide for sales return allowances and reduce revenue at the time of shipment for the estimated amount of such future returns, based on historical experience. We make estimates evaluating our allowance for doubtful accounts. While product returns have historically been within our expectations and established provisions, there is no assurance that we will continue to experience the same return rates that we have in the past. Any significant increase in product return rates could have a material adverse impact on our operating results for the period in which such returns materialize.

While we maintain a credit approval process, significant judgments are made by management in connection with assessing our customers' ability to pay at the time of shipment. Despite this assessment, from time to time, our customers are unable to meet their payment obligations. We continuously monitor our customers' creditworthiness and use our judgment in establishing a provision for estimated credit losses based upon our historical experience and any specific customer collection issues that we have identified. While such credit losses have historically been within our expectations and the provisions established, there is no assurance that we will continue to experience the same credit loss rates that we have in the past. A significant change in the liquidity or financial position of our customers could have a material adverse impact on the collectability of accounts receivable and our future operating results. Bad debt expense was immaterial in 2023, 2022 and 2021.

Inventory. We value our inventory at the lower of cost or net realizable value, cost being determined using a standard costing system that approximates actual costs, based on a first-in, first-out method. We regularly review inventory quantities on hand and record a provision to write-down excess and obsolete inventory to its estimated net realizable value, if less than cost, based primarily on our estimated forecast of product demand. Once our inventory value is written-down and a new cost basis has been established, the inventory value is not increased due to demand increases. Demand for our products can fluctuate significantly. A significant increase in the demand for our products could result in a short-term increase in the cost of inventory purchases as a result of supply shortages or a decrease in the cost of inventory purchases as a result of volume discounts, while a significant decrease in demand could result in an increase in the charges for excess inventory quantities on hand. In addition, our industry is subject to technological change, new product development and product technological obsolescence that could result in an increase in the amount of obsolete inventory quantities on hand. Therefore, any significant unanticipated changes in demand or technological developments could have a significant impact on the value of our inventory and our reported operating results. Excess and obsolete expense was $64 million, $21 million and $16 million for 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The higher excess and obsolete charge in 2023 was partially the result of an inventory write-off related to the discontinuation of a product line and partially the result of reduced forecasted usage.

Warranty Costs. We provide for the estimated costs to fulfill customer warranty obligations upon the recognition of the related revenue. We provide warranty coverage for our products for periods ranging from 12 to 36 months, with the majority of our products for periods ranging from 12 to 24 months. Short-term accrued warranty obligations, which expire within one year, are included in other current liabilities and long-term accrued warranty obligations are included in other liabilities in the consolidated balance sheets. We estimate the anticipated costs of repairing our products under such warranties based on the historical costs of the repairs and any known specific product issues. The assumptions we use to estimate warranty accruals are re-evaluated periodically in light of actual experience and, when appropriate, the accruals are adjusted. Our determination of the appropriate level of warranty accrual is based upon estimates. Should product failure rates differ from our estimates, actual costs could vary significantly from our expectations. Defective products will be either repaired or replaced, generally at our option, upon meeting certain criteria.

Pension Plans. Several of our non-U.S. subsidiaries have defined benefit pension plans covering employees of those subsidiaries. Some of the plans are unfunded, as permitted under the plans and applicable laws. For financial reporting purposes, we obtained actuarial reports supporting the calculation of net periodic pension costs that used a number of actuarial assumptions, including a discount rate for plan obligations, an assumed rate of return on pension plan assets and an assumed rate of compensation increase for employees covered by the various plans. We reviewed these actuarial assumptions and concluded they

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were reasonable based upon our judgment, considering known trends and uncertainties. Actual results that differ from these assumptions would impact future expense recognition and the cash funding requirements of our pension plans.

Stock-Based Compensation Expense. We record compensation expense for all stock-based compensation awards to employees and directors based upon the estimated fair market value of the underlying instrument. Accordingly, stock-based compensation cost is measured at the grant date, based upon the fair value of the award.

We typically issue restricted stock units (“RSUs”) as stock-based compensation. We also provide certain employees the opportunity to purchase our shares through an Employee Stock Purchase Plan (“ESPP”). For RSUs, the fair value is the closing market price of the stock on the date of grant. We estimate the fair value of shares issued under our ESPP using the Black-Scholes pricing model, which incorporates a number of complex and subjective variables, including expected stock price volatility over the term of the awards, expected life, risk-free interest rate and expected dividends. Management determined that blended stock-based compensation, a combination of historical and implied volatility, is more reflective of market conditions and a better indicator of expected volatility than historical or implied volatility alone.

Certain RSUs involve stock to be issued upon the achievement of performance conditions (“performance shares”) under our stock incentive plan. Such performance shares become available, subject to time-based vesting conditions if, and to the extent that, financial performance criteria for the applicable period are achieved. Accordingly, the number of performance shares earned will vary based on the level of achievement of financial performance objectives for the applicable period. For each quarter until such time that our financial performance can ultimately be determined, we estimate the number of performance shares to be earned based on an evaluation of the probability of achieving the financial performance objectives. Such estimates are revised, if necessary, in subsequent periods when the underlying factors change our evaluation of the probability of achieving the financial performance objectives. Accordingly, share-based compensation expense associated with performance shares may differ significantly from the amount recorded in the current period.

The assumptions used in calculating the fair value of share-based compensation awards represents management’s best estimates, but these estimates involve inherent uncertainties and the application of management’s judgment. As a result, if factors change and we use different assumptions, our stock-based compensation expense could be materially different in the future.

Intangible Assets, Goodwill and Other Long-Lived Assets. As a result of our acquisitions, we have identified intangible assets and generated significant goodwill. Definite-lived intangible assets are valued based on estimates of future cash flows and amortized over their estimated useful life. Determining fair value requires the exercise of significant judgment, including assumptions about appropriate discount rates as well as forecasted revenue, terminal growth rate, gross profit and operating expenses.

Goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets are subject to annual impairment testing as well as testing upon the occurrence of any event that indicates a potential impairment. Intangible assets and other long-lived assets are also subject to an impairment test if there is an indicator of impairment. If our expectations of future results and cash flows are significantly diminished, intangible assets, goodwill and other long-lived assets may be impaired and the resulting charge to operations may be material. When we determine that the carrying value of intangible assets or other long-lived assets may not be recoverable based upon the existence of one or more indicators of impairment, we use the projected undiscounted cash flow method to determine whether an impairment exists, and then measure the impairment using discounted cash flows. To measure impairment for goodwill, we compare the fair value of our reporting units by measuring discounted cash flows to the book value of the reporting units. Goodwill would be impaired if the resulting implied fair value was less than the recorded book value of the goodwill.

The estimation of useful lives and expected cash flows requires us to make significant judgments regarding future periods that are subject to factors outside of our control. Changes in these estimates can result in significant revisions to the carrying value of these assets and may result in material charges to the results of operations.

We have elected to perform our annual goodwill impairment test as of October 31 of each year, or more often if events or circumstances indicate that there may be impairment. Goodwill is the amount by which the cost of acquired net assets exceeded the fair value of those net assets on the date of acquisition. We allocate goodwill to reporting units at the time of acquisition or when there is a change in the reporting structure and base that allocation on which reporting units will benefit from the acquired assets and liabilities. Reporting units are defined as operating segments or one level below an operating segment, referred to as a component. The estimated fair value of our reporting units was based on discounted cash flow models derived from internal earnings and internal and external market forecasts. Determining fair value requires the exercise of significant judgment, including assumptions about appropriate discount and perpetual growth rates, as well as forecasted revenue growth rates and gross profit and operating expenses. Discount rates are based on a weighted average cost of capital (“WACC”), which represents the average rate a business must pay its providers of debt and equity. The WACC used to test goodwill is derived from a group of comparable companies. Assumptions in estimating future cash flows are subject to a high degree of judgment and complexity. We make every effort to forecast these future cash flows as accurately as possible with the information available at the time the forecast is developed.

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During the quarter ended June 30, 2023, as a result of softer industry demand, particularly in the personal computer and smartphone markets, we concluded there was a triggering event at our Electronics (“EL”) and general metal finishing (“GMF”) reporting units, which together constitute MSD, and our Equipment Solutions Business (“ESB”) reporting unit of PSD. We concluded there was no triggering event at our other reporting units within VSD and PSD.

For the EL, GMF and ESB reporting units, we performed a quantitative assessment of goodwill using a combination of a market approach and the income approach. This quantitative assessment resulted in a non-cash goodwill impairment of $826 million for the EL reporting unit, $428 million for the GMF reporting unit and $372 million for the ESB reporting unit. In addition, we recorded a $49 million impairment of in-process research and development (“IPR&D”) allocated to the EL reporting unit and a $152 million impairment related to completed technology allocated to the ESB reporting unit.

In performing our annual goodwill impairment test, we are permitted to first assess qualitative factors to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of our reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, including goodwill. In performing the qualitative assessment, we consider certain events and circumstances specific to the reporting unit and to the entity as a whole, such as macroeconomic conditions, industry and market considerations, overall financial performance and cost factors when evaluating whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. We are also permitted to bypass the qualitative assessment and proceed directly to the quantitative assessment. If we choose to undertake the qualitative assessment and we conclude that it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, we would then proceed to the quantitative impairment assessment. In the quantitative assessment, we compare the fair value of the reporting unit to its carrying amount, which includes goodwill. If the fair value exceeds the carrying value, no impairment loss exists. If the fair value is less than the carrying amount, a goodwill impairment loss is measured and recorded.

As of October 31, 2023, we performed our annual impairment assessment of goodwill by bypassing the qualitative assessment and using a quantitative assessment for all of our reporting units. As a result of higher WACC mainly caused by overall higher market interest rates, we recorded additional non-cash goodwill impairment charges of $48 million and $13 million at our EL and ESB reporting units, respectively. There was no goodwill impairment at any of our other reporting units. In addition, we recorded a $14 million impairment of IPR&D allocated to the EL reporting unit.

We will continue to monitor and evaluate the carrying value of goodwill and intangible assets. If market and economic conditions or business performance deteriorate, this could increase the likelihood of us recording an impairment charge. Our stock price and any estimated control premium are factors affecting the assessment of the fair value of our underlying reporting units for purposes of performing any goodwill impairment assessment.

Income Taxes. We evaluate the realizability of our net deferred tax assets and assess the need for a valuation allowance on a quarterly basis. The future benefit to be derived from our deferred tax assets is dependent upon our ability to generate sufficient future taxable income in each jurisdiction of the right type to realize the assets. We record a valuation allowance to reduce our net deferred tax assets to the amount that is expected to be realized. To the extent we establish a valuation allowance, an expense is recorded within the provision for income taxes line in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive (loss) income.

Accounting for income taxes requires a two-step approach to recognize and measure uncertain tax positions. The first step is to evaluate the tax position for recognition by determining if, based on the technical merits, it is more likely than not that the position will be sustained upon audit, including resolutions of related appeals or litigation processes, if any. The second step is to measure the tax benefit as the largest amount that is more than 50% likely of being realized upon ultimate settlement. We re-evaluate these uncertain tax positions on a quarterly basis. This evaluation is based on factors including, but not limited to, changes in facts or circumstances, changes in tax law, effectively settled issues under audit and new audit activity. Any change in these factors could result in the recognition of a tax benefit or an additional charge to the tax provision.

Derivatives. As a result of our global operating activities and variable interest rate borrowings, we are exposed to market risks from changes in foreign currency exchange rates and interest rates, which may adversely affect our operating results and financial position. We address these risks through a risk management program that includes the use of derivative financial instruments. We operate the program pursuant to documented corporate risk management policies. We enter into derivative instruments for risk management purposes only, including derivatives designated as hedging instruments and those utilized as economic hedges. We do not enter into derivative instruments for trading or speculative purposes.

We have used derivative instruments, such as foreign exchange forward contracts and options, to manage certain foreign currency exposure, and interest rate swaps and interest rate caps to manage certain interest rate exposure. Changes in fair value of derivative instruments are recognized in the consolidated statement of operations or, if hedge accounting is applied, in Other Comprehensive (Loss) Income (“OCI”) for the effective portion of the changes in fair value. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in the consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities. All derivatives are stated at fair value in the consolidated balance sheets.

Accounting principles for qualifying hedges require detailed documentation that describes the relationship between the hedging instrument and the hedged item, including, but not limited to, the risk management objectives and hedging strategy and

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the methods to assess the effectiveness of the hedging relationship. We assess the hedging relationships, both at the inception of the hedge and on an ongoing basis, using either the critical terms matching approach or a regression analysis approach to determine whether the designated hedging instrument is highly effective in offsetting changes in the value of the hedged item.

By nature, all financial instruments involve market and credit risks. We enter into derivative instruments with a diversified group of major investment grade financial institutions, for which no collateral is required. We have policies to monitor the credit risk of these counterparties. While there can be no assurance, we do not anticipate any material non-performance by any of these counterparties.

Results of Operations

The following table sets forth, for the periods indicated, the percentage of total net revenues of certain line items included in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive (loss) income data:

Year Ended December 31, 2023 compared to 2022

The following table sets forth our net revenues for products and services:

Net Revenues

Net product revenues increased $81 million in 2023, compared to 2022, primarily driven by the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition with MSD net product revenues increasing by $668 million compared to 2022, partially offset by decreases in VSD and PSD product revenues of $533 million and $52 million, respectively. VSD and PSD net product revenues were negatively impacted by volume decreases as a result of softening demand in our semiconductor and electronics and packaging markets.

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Net service revenues consisted mainly of fees for services related to the maintenance and repair of our products, sales of spare parts, and installation and training. Net service revenues decreased $6 million in 2023, compared to 2022, primarily due to a decrease in VSD net service revenues of $28 million partially offset by the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition with MSD net service revenues increasing by $22 million. The decrease in VSD net service revenues was a result of decreases in sales to customers in our semiconductor market.

Total international net revenues, including product and service, were $2.4 billion in 2023, compared to $2.1 billion in 2022. The increase in 2023 was primarily driven by the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition. The increase in international net revenues was primarily from increases in sales to customers in China, India and Japan.

The following table sets forth our net revenues by reportable segment:

Net Revenues

Net revenues for our VSD segment decreased $562 million in 2023, compared to 2022, which was largely reflective of volume decreases in the semiconductor market.

Net revenues for our PSD segment decreased $52 million in 2023, compared to 2022, partially due to volume decreases in the semiconductor market and partially due to decreases in net revenues in the electronics and packaging market caused by decreased industry demand for flexible PCB via drilling equipment as a result of softened demand for electronics, such as personal computers, data center servers and smartphones.

Net revenues for our MSD segment increased $689 million in 2023 compared to 2022, primarily due to the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition.

The following table sets forth gross profit as a percentage of net revenues by product and service:

Gross Profit Excluding Amortization

Gross profit as a percentage of net product revenues increased by 2.3 percentage points in 2023, compared to 2022, primarily due to the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition, as MSD had higher gross margins than VSD and PSD, as well as favorable product mix, including contributions from MSD and lower warranty costs. These increases in gross margin were partially offset by lower factory absorption at VSD and higher excess and obsolete inventory charges, mainly related to the discontinuation of a product line.

Gross profit as a percentage of net service revenues decreased by 2.4 percentage points in 2023, compared to 2022, primarily due to unfavorable product mix and unfavorable overhead absorption partially offset by lower freight and duty costs.

The following table sets forth gross profit as a percentage of net revenues by reportable segment:

Gross Profit Excluding Amortization

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Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for VSD decreased in 2023, primarily due to lower revenue volumes and unfavorable overhead absorption as a result of softening demand in our semiconductor market, and higher excess and obsolete inventory charges, partially offset by lower material costs.

Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for PSD decreased in 2023, primarily due to higher excess and obsolete inventory charges, mainly related to the discontinuation of a product line, lower revenue volumes and unfavorable product mix.

Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for MSD increased in 2023, primarily due to the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition which resulted in higher revenue volumes and favorable product mix. In addition, gross profit as a percentage was lower in 2022, due to $52 million of inventory step-up amortization related to the Atotech Acquisition.

Research and Development

Research and development expenses increased $47 million in 2023, compared to 2022, primarily due to an increase of $56 million resulting from the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition partially offset by decreases of $5 million in project material costs and $2 million in professional and consulting fees.

Our research and development efforts are primarily focused on developing and improving our instruments, components, chemistry, subsystems, systems and process control solutions to improve process performance and productivity. We have thousands of products, and our research and development efforts primarily consist of a large number of projects related to these products, none of which is individually material to us. Projects typically have a duration of 3 to 36 months but may be extended for development of new products.

We continue to make product advancements to meet our customers' evolving needs. We have developed, and continue to develop, new products to address industry trends, such as the shrinking of integrated circuit critical dimensions and technology inflections, and, in the flat panel display and solar markets, the transition to larger substrate sizes, which require more advanced processing and process control technology, the continuing drive toward more complex and accurate components and devices within the handset and tablet market, the transition to 5G for both devices and infrastructure, the growth in units and via counts in the high-density interconnect PCB drilling market, and the industry transition to electric cars in the automotive market. In addition, we have developed, and continue to develop, products that support the migration to new classes of materials, ultra-thin layers, and 3D structures that are used in small geometry manufacturing. In our chemistry and equipment plating businesses, a majority of our research and development investment supports existing customers' product improvement needs and their short-term research and development goals, which enables us to pioneer new high-value solutions while limiting commercial risk. Research and development expenses consist primarily of salaries and related expenses for personnel engaged in research and development, fees paid to consultants, material costs for prototypes and other expenses related to the design, development, testing and enhancement of our products.

We believe that the continued investment in research and development and ongoing development of new products are essential to the expansion of our markets. We expect to continue to make significant investment in research and development activities. We are subject to risks from products not being developed in a timely manner, as well as from rapidly changing customer requirements and competitive threats from other companies and technologies. Our success depends on many of our products being designed into new generations of equipment for the semiconductor, electronics and packaging, and specialty industrial markets. We seek to develop products that are technologically advanced so that they are positioned to be chosen for use in each successive generation of semiconductor, electronics and packaging, and specialty industrial markets applications. If our products are not chosen to be designed into our customers’ products, our net revenues may be reduced during the lifespan of those products.

Selling, General and Administrative

Selling, general and administrative expenses increased $187 million during 2023, compared to 2022, primarily due to an increase of $173 million resulting from the full-year impact of the Atotech Acquisition and $15 million in net costs incurred in 2023 as a result of the ransomware event.

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Acquisition and Integration Costs

Acquisition and integration costs incurred during 2023 and 2022 were primarily related to consulting and professional fees related to the Atotech Acquisition.

Restructuring

Restructuring charges incurred in 2023 were related to severance costs as a result of various global cost savings initiatives implemented during the year. Restructuring charges in 2022 primarily related to executive payments related to the Atotech Acquisition, severance costs due to a global cost-saving initiative, the closure of two facilities in Europe and movement of certain products to low-cost regions.

Fees and expenses related to repricing of Term Loan Facility

In 2023, we recorded fees and expenses related to the First Amendment, as defined and described further below under “Credit Facilities.”

Amortization of Intangible Assets

Amortization of intangible assets increased $149 million in 2023, compared to 2022, primarily due to amortization of intangible assets from the Atotech Acquisition.

Goodwill and Intangible Asset Impairments

During the quarter ended June 30, 2023, as a result of softer industry demand, particularly in the personal computer and smartphone markets, we concluded there was a triggering event at our EL and GMF reporting units, which together constitute MSD, and the ESB reporting unit of PSD. We concluded there was no triggering event at our other reporting units within VSD and PSD.

For the EL, GMF and ESB reporting units, we performed a quantitative assessment of goodwill using a combination of a market approach and income approach. Fair value estimates are based on complex series of judgments about future events and uncertainties and rely heavily on estimates and assumptions that have been deemed reasonable by our management. There are inherent uncertainties and management judgment required in these determinations.

This quantitative assessment resulted in a non-cash goodwill impairment of $826 million for the EL reporting unit, $428 million for the GMF reporting unit and $372 million for the ESB reporting unit. In addition, we recorded a $49 million impairment of IPR&D allocated to the EL reporting unit and a $152 million impairment related to completed technology allocated to the ESB reporting unit.

On October 31, 2023, we performed our annual goodwill and intangible asset impairment assessment. As a result of higher WACC mainly caused by overall higher market interest rates, we recorded additional non-cash goodwill impairment charges of

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$48 million and $13 million at our EL and ESB reporting units, respectively. In addition, we recorded a $14 million impairment of IPR&D allocated to the EL reporting unit. There were no impairments at any of our other reporting units.

We will continue to monitor and evaluate the carrying value of goodwill and intangible assets. If market and economic conditions or business performance deteriorate, the likelihood that we would record an impairment charge would increase, which could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and operating results.

.Gain on Sale of Long-Lived Assets

In 2023 and 2022, we recorded gains as a result of receiving cash from the sale of a minority interest investment in a private company.

Interest Expense, Net

Interest expense, net, increased by $166 million in 2023, compared to 2022, primarily due to the full-year impact of borrowings under the Term Loan Facility, as described below.

Loss on extinguishment of debt

In connection with the First Amendment, as defined and described further below under “Credit Facilities,” we recorded a loss on extinguishment of debt.

Other Expense, Net

Other expense, net, for 2023 and 2022 primarily related to changes in foreign exchange rates.

(Benefit) Provision for Income Taxes

Our effective tax rates for 2023 and 2022 were 4.5% and 23.1%, respectively. Our effective tax rate for 2023 was lower than the U.S. statutory tax rate, mainly due to the impairment of goodwill and intangible assets.

Our effective tax rate for 2022 was higher than the U.S. statutory tax rate, mainly due to additional withholding taxes related to the change of indefinite reinvestment assertion, the U.S. global intangible low-taxed income inclusion, offset by the U.S. deduction for foreign derived intangible income and the geographic mix of income earned by our international subsidiaries being taxed at rates lower than the U.S. statutory tax rate.

As of December 31, 2023, total gross unrecognized tax benefits, which excludes interest and penalties, was $86 million. As of December 31, 2022, total gross unrecognized tax benefits, which excludes interest and penalties, was $83 million. The net increase was primarily attributable to the addition of unrecognized U.S. federal tax credits.

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We accrue interest and, if applicable, penalties for any uncertain tax positions. Interest and penalties are classified as a component of income tax expense. As of December 31, 2023 and 2022, we accrued interest on unrecognized tax benefits of approximately $7 million and $6 million, respectively.

Over the next 12 months, it is reasonably possible that we may recognize approximately $12 million of previously net unrecognized tax benefits, excluding interest and penalties, related to various U.S. federal, state and foreign tax positions, primarily due to the expiration of statutes of limitations.

We are subject to examination by U.S. federal, state and foreign tax authorities. The U.S. federal statute of limitations remains open for tax years 2020 through the present. The statute of limitations for our tax filings in other jurisdictions varies between fiscal years 2017 through the present. We also have certain federal credit carryforwards and state tax loss and credit carryforwards that are open to examination for tax years 2002 through the present. In addition, the 2017 transition tax remains open for examination.

In 2023, we recorded a net charge to income tax expense of $7 million, due to additional reserves offset by the expiration of certain statutes of limitations. In 2022, we recorded a net charge to income tax expense of $5 million, due to additional reserves offset by the closure of a tax audit and expiration of certain statutes of limitations.

Our future effective tax rate depends on various factors, including the impact of tax legislation, further interpretations and guidance from U.S. federal and state governments on the impact of proposed regulations issued by the Internal Revenue Service, as well as the geographic composition of our pre-tax income and changes in income tax reserves for unrecognized tax benefits. A number of jurisdictions in which we operate are in the process of adopting Pillar Two Model Rules (“Pillar Two”) for a global 15% minimum tax as promulgated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Pillar Two could materially increase our future effective tax rate. We cannot be certain regarding the amount of the effective tax rate increase until all jurisdictions in which we operate adopt legislation and implement a version of Pillar Two. We monitor these factors and timely adjust our estimates of the effective tax rate accordingly. We expect the geographic mix of pre-tax income will continue to have a favorable impact on our effective tax rate. However, the geographic mix of pre-tax income can change based on multiple factors including the Atotech Acquisition, resulting in changes to the effective tax rate in future periods. While we believe we have adequately provided for all tax positions, amounts asserted by taxing authorities could materially differ from our accrued positions as a result of uncertain and complex application of tax laws and regulations. Additionally, the recognition and measurement of certain tax benefits include estimates and judgment by management. Accordingly, we could record additional provisions or benefits for U.S. federal, state, and foreign tax matters in future periods as new information becomes available.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Cash, cash equivalents and short-term investments at December 31, 2023 and 2022 totaled $875 million and $910 million, respectively. The primary driver of our current and anticipated future cash flows is, and we expect will continue to be, cash generated from operations, consisting primarily of our net (loss) income, excluding non-cash charges and changes in operating assets and liabilities.

Our total cash and cash equivalents at December 31, 2023 consisted of $319 million held in the United States and $556 million held by our foreign subsidiaries. We believe that our current cash and investments position and available borrowing capacity, together with the cash anticipated to be generated from our operations, will be sufficient to satisfy our estimated working capital, planned capital expenditure requirements, payments of debt, and any future cash dividends declared by our Board of Directors or share repurchases through at least the next 12 months and the foreseeable future.

In periods when our sales are growing, higher sales to customers will result in increased trade receivables, and inventories will generally increase as we build products for future sales. This may result in lower cash generated from operations. Conversely, in periods when our sales are declining, our trade accounts receivable and inventory balances will generally decrease, resulting in increased cash from operations.

Net cash provided by operating activities was $319 million for 2023 and resulted from a net loss of $1,841 million, which included non-cash charges of $2,259 million, mainly as a result of goodwill and intangible asset impairment charges of $1,902 million, offset by a net increase in working capital of $99 million. The net increase in working capital was primarily due to a decrease in accounts payable of $99 million, a decrease in income taxes payable of $64 million and an increase in inventory of $76 million. This net increase in working capital was partially offset by a decrease in accounts receivable of $114 million, as a result of lower business levels, and a decrease in other current and non-current assets of $50 million, primarily as a result of a decrease in right of use assets of $31 million, and a decrease in other current and non-current assets of $19 million.

Net cash provided by operating activities was $529 million for 2022 and resulted from net income of $333 million, which included non-cash net charges of $353 million, offset by a net increase in working capital of $157 million. The net increase in working capital was primarily due to increases in inventory of $236 million, as a result of increased business levels, and a decrease of $31 million in accrued compensation, resulting from the payment of variable compensation. These increases in working capital

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were partially offset by a decrease in other current and non-current assets of $28 million, an increase in accounts payable of $61 million and an increase in income taxes payable of $19 million.

Net cash used in investing activities was $84 million for 2023, consisting primarily of $87 million in capital expenditures, offset by $3 million in proceeds from the sale of long-lived assets.

Net cash used in investing activities was $4.6 billion for 2022, primarily due to $4.5 billion used for the Atotech Acquisition, net of cash and cash equivalents acquired, and $164 million in capital expenditures, partially offset by $76 million in net maturities of investments.

Net cash used in financing activities was $259 million for 2023, primarily due to $403 million of payments on our Term Loan Facility and $59 million of dividend payments, partially offset by $216 million in proceeds from our Term Loan Facility.

Net cash provided by financing activities was $4.0 billion for 2022, primarily due to $5.2 billion in net proceeds from our Term Loan Facility offset by $962 million of payments on borrowings, primarily related to payment of our prior term loan facility, a $100 million voluntary prepayment on the USD Tranche A (as defined below), a $22 million regularly scheduled payment on the Term Loan Facility, $52 million in dividend payments and $249 million in payments of deferred financing costs.

For the year ended December 31, 2023, we paid cash dividends of $59 million in the aggregate or $0.88 per share. For the year ended December 31, 2022, we paid cash dividends of $52 million in the aggregate or $0.88 per share. Future dividend declarations, if any, as well as the record and payment dates for such dividends, are subject to the final determination of our Board of Directors. Holders of our common stock are entitled to receive dividends when and if they are declared by our Board of Directors. Under the terms of our Term Loan Facility and Revolving Facility, each as defined and described further below, we may be restricted from paying dividends under certain circumstances.

On February 5, 2024, our Board of Directors declared a quarterly cash dividend of $0.22 per share to be paid on March 8, 2024 to shareholders of record as of February 26, 2024.

Atotech Acquisition

On August 17, 2022 (the “Effective Date”), we completed the Atotech Acquisition. The total net purchase price, including cash consideration, net of cash acquired, value of MKS shares issued, repayment of Atotech debt and settlement of share-based awards totaled $5.7 billion. We funded the payment of the aggregate cash consideration with a combination of cash on hand and the proceeds from the Term Loan Facility, as defined below. As a result of the Atotech Acquisition, we issued an aggregate of 10.7 million shares of our common stock to the former Atotech shareholders.

Credit Facilities

In connection with the completion of the Atotech Acquisition, we entered into the Credit Agreement, dated as of August 17, 2022, by and among us, the lenders and letter of credit issuers party thereto and JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as administrative agent and collateral agent (as amended from time to time, the “Credit Agreement”). The Credit Agreement provided for (i) a senior secured term loan facility comprised of three tranches: a $1.0 billion loan (the “USD Tranche A”), a $3.6 billion loan (the “2022 USD Tranche B” and together with the 2023 USD Tranche B (as defined below), as the context may require, the “USD Tranche B”) and a €600 million loan (the “Euro Tranche B” and together with the USD Tranche A and the USD Tranche B, the “Term Loan Facility”), each of which were borrowed in full on the Effective Date, and (ii) a senior secured revolving credit facility of $500 million (the “Revolving Facility” and, together with the Term Loan Facility, the “Credit Facilities”), with the commitments under each of the foregoing facilities subject to increase from time to time subject to certain conditions. The USD Tranche A was repaid in January 2024, as described below. The Revolving Facility has a maturity date in August 2027 while the USD Tranche B and Euro Tranche B have a maturity date in August 2029.

Borrowings under the Credit Facilities bear interest at a rate per annum equal to, at our option, any of the following, plus, in each case, an applicable margin: (a) with respect to the USD Tranche A, the Revolving Facility and, prior to the effectiveness of the First Amendment (as defined below), the USD Tranche B, (x) a base rate determined by reference to the highest of (1) the federal funds effective rate plus 0.50%, (2) the prime rate quoted in The Wall Street Journal, or (3) a forward-looking term rate based on the variable secured overnight financing rate (“Term SOFR”) (plus an applicable credit spread adjustment) for an interest period of one month, plus 1.00%; and (y) a Term SOFR rate (plus an applicable credit spread adjustment) for the interest period relevant to such borrowing, subject to a rate floor of (I) with respect to the USD Tranche B, 0.50% and (II) with respect to the USD Tranche A and the Revolving Facility, 0.0%; and (b) with respect to the Euro Tranche B, a Euro Interbank Offered Rate (“EURIBOR”) rate determined by reference to the costs of funds for Euro deposits for the interest period relevant to such borrowing adjusted for certain additional costs, subject to a EURIBOR rate floor of 0.0%. The USD Tranche A was issued with original issue discount of 0.25% of the principal amount thereof. The 2022 USD Tranche B and the Euro Tranche B were issued with original issue discount of 2.00% of the principal amount thereof. The applicable margin for borrowings under the USD

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Tranche A is 1.50% with respect to base rate borrowings and 2.50% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings. Prior to the effectiveness of the First Amendment, the applicable margin for borrowings under the USD Tranche B was 1.75% with respect to base rate borrowings and 2.75% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings. The applicable margin for borrowings under the Euro Tranche B is 3.00%. The applicable margin for borrowings under the Revolving Facility is 1.50% with respect to base rate borrowings and 2.50% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings.

In addition to paying interest on outstanding principal under the Credit Facilities, we are required to pay a commitment fee in respect of the unutilized commitments under the Revolving Facility. The initial commitment fee is 0.375% per annum. Commencing with the delivery of financial statements with respect to the first quarter ending after the closing of the Credit Agreement, the commitment fee is subject to downward adjustment based on our first lien net leverage ratio as of the end of the preceding quarter. We must also pay customary letter of credit fees and agency fees.

On October 3, 2023 (the “First Amendment Effective Date”), we entered into the First Amendment to Credit Agreement (the “First Amendment”), which refinanced all of the $3.56 billion outstanding 2022 USD Tranche B (such refinanced loans, the “2023 USD Tranche B”) to (i) decrease the applicable margin for the USD Tranche B from 1.75% to 1.50% with respect to base rate borrowings and from 2.75% to 2.50% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings and (ii) remove the credit spread adjustments applicable to borrowings of the USD Tranche B based on Term SOFR. The 2023 USD Tranche B were issued with original issue discount of 0.25% of the principal amount thereof.

On October 31, 2023, we made a voluntary prepayment of $100 million aggregate principal amount on the USD Tranche A.

We incurred $242 million of deferred financing fees and original issue discount related to the term loans under the Term Loan Facility funded on the Effective Date, which are included in long-term debt, net in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets and are being amortized to interest expense over the estimated life of the term loans using the effective interest method. A portion of the deferred financing fees and original issue discount was accelerated in connection with the extinguishment of our previously existing term loan facility concurrently with our entry into the Term Loan Facility.

We incurred $11 million of deferred financing fees and original issue discount related to the term loans under the 2023 USD Tranche B funded on the First Amendment Effective Date, of which $9 million is included in long-term debt, net in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets and is being amortized to interest expense over the estimated life of the term loans using the effective interest method. We recorded an $8 million loss on extinguishment of debt in connection with the First Amendment of the 2022 USD Tranche B.

In connection with the various prepayments in 2022 and 2023, we wrote off a portion of the deferred financing costs related to the prepayments.

Under the Credit Agreement, we are required to prepay outstanding term loans, subject to certain exceptions, with portions of our annual excess cash flow as well as with the net cash proceeds of certain of our asset sales, certain casualty and condemnation events and the incurrences or issuances of certain debt.

If at any time the aggregate amount of outstanding loans, unreimbursed letter of credit drawings and undrawn letters of credit under the Revolving Facility exceeds the aggregate commitments under the Revolving Facility, we are required to repay outstanding loans and/or cash collateralize letters of credit, with no reduction of the commitment amount.

We may voluntarily prepay outstanding loans under the Credit Facilities from time to time, subject to certain conditions, without premium or penalty other than customary “breakage” costs with respect to Term SOFR or EURIBOR loans; provided, however, that subject to certain exceptions, (i) if on or prior to the date that was twelve months after the Effective Date, we prepaid any loans under the 2022 USD Tranche B or the Euro Tranche B in connection with a repricing transaction, we would have been required to pay a prepayment premium of 1.00% of the aggregate principal amount of the loans so prepaid and (ii) if on or prior to the date that is six months after the First Amendment Effective Date, we prepaid any loans under the 2023 USD Tranche B in connection with a repricing transaction, we must pay a prepayment premium of 1.00% of the aggregate principal amount of the loans so prepaid. Additionally, we may voluntarily reduce the unutilized portion of the commitment amount under the Revolving Facility.

We are required to make scheduled quarterly payments each equal to 1.25% of the original principal amount of the USD Tranche A (increasing to 1.875% in years 3 and 4 and 2.50% in year 5), 0.25% of the original principal amount of the Euro Tranche B and 0.25% of the original principal amount of the 2023 USD Tranche B, with the balance due thereunder on the fifth anniversary of the closing date in the case of the USD Tranche A and the seventh anniversary of the closing date in the case of the USD Tranche B and the Euro Tranche B.

There is no scheduled amortization under the Revolving Facility. Any principal amount outstanding under the Revolving Facility is due and payable in full on the fifth anniversary of the closing date.

We incurred $7 million of costs in connection with the Revolving Facility, which were capitalized and included in other assets in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets and are being amortized to interest expense over the estimated life of four

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years. As a result of the termination of our previously existing revolving credit facility concurrently with our entry into the Revolving Facility, we wrote off an immaterial amount of previously capitalized debt issuance costs.

All obligations under the Credit Facilities are guaranteed by certain of our wholly-owned domestic subsidiaries and are required to be guaranteed by certain of our future wholly-owned domestic subsidiaries, and are secured by substantially all of our assets and the assets of such subsidiaries, subject to certain exceptions and exclusions.

Under the Credit Agreement, we have the ability to incur additional incremental debt facilities in an amount up to (x) the greater of (1) $1.01 billion and (2) 75% of consolidated EBITDA, plus (y) an amount equal to the sum of all voluntary prepayments of term loans under the Term Loan Facility, plus (z) an additional unlimited amount subject to pro forma compliance with certain leverage ratio tests (based on the security and priority of such incremental debt).

Under the USD Tranche A and the Revolving Facility, so long as any USD Tranche A loans (or commitments in respect thereof) are outstanding as of the end of any fiscal quarter, we may not allow our total net leverage ratio as of the end of such fiscal quarter to be greater than 5.25 to 1.00 for the fiscal quarters ending December 31, 2023 through September 30, 2024, with an annual step-down of 0.25:1.00 and subject to a step-up of 0.50:1.00 for the four full fiscal quarter period following any material acquisition, not to exceed 5.50 to 1.00.

In addition, in the event there are no loans outstanding under the USD Tranche A, as of the end of any fiscal quarter of ours when the aggregate amount of loans outstanding under the Revolving Facility (net of (a) all letters of credit (whether cash collateralized or not) and (b) unrestricted cash of ours and our restricted subsidiaries) exceeds 35% of the aggregate amount of all commitments under the Revolving Facility in effect as of such date, we may not allow its first lien net leverage ratio as of the end of each such fiscal quarter to be greater than 6.00 to 1.00.

The USD Tranche B and the Euro Tranche B are not subject to financial maintenance covenants.

The Credit Agreement contains a number of negative covenants that, among other things and subject to certain exceptions, restrict our ability and each of our subsidiaries to: incur additional indebtedness; pay dividends on its capital stock or redeem, repurchase or retire its capital stock or its subordinated indebtedness; make investments, loans and acquisitions; create restrictions on the payment of dividends or other amounts to ourselves from our restricted subsidiaries or restrictions on the ability of our restricted subsidiaries to incur liens; engage in transactions with its affiliates; sell assets, including capital stock of its subsidiaries; materially alter the business it conducts; consolidate or merge; incur liens; and engage in sale-leaseback transactions.

The Credit Agreement also contains customary representations and warranties, affirmative covenants and provisions relating to events of default. If an event of default occurs, the lenders under the Credit Facilities will be entitled to take various actions, including the acceleration of amounts due under the Credit Facilities and all actions permitted to be taken by a secured creditor. As of December 31, 2023, we were in compliance with all covenants under the Credit Agreement.

The proceeds of the Term Loan Facility were used on the Effective Date, among other things, to fund a portion of the consideration payable in connection with the Atotech Acquisition and to refinance the existing term loan and revolving credit facilities of ours and certain indebtedness of Atotech. We also paid certain customary fees to and expenses of JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., Barclays Bank PLC, BofA Securities, Inc., Citibank, N.A., HSBC Securities (USA) Inc. and Mizuho Bank, Ltd. in their respective capacities as lead arrangers and bookrunners in connection with the Credit Facilities. The proceeds of the 2023 USD Tranche B were used on the First Amendment Effective Date to refinance the 2022 USD Tranche B. We also paid certain customary fees to and expenses of JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A. in its capacity as lead arranger in connection with the 2023 USD Tranche B.

As of December 31, 2023, after total principal prepayments of $200 million and regularly scheduled principal payments of $109 million, the aggregate outstanding principal amount of the Term Loan Facility was $4.95 billion and the weighted average interest rate was 7.7%. As of December 31, 2023, there were no borrowings under the Revolving Facility.

2024 Amendments and Prepayment of Credit Facilities

On January 22, 2024 (the “Second Amendment Effective Date”), we entered into the Second Amendment to Credit Agreement (the “Second Amendment”), which amended the Credit Agreement. Pursuant to the Second Amendment, we (i) borrowed additional USD Tranche B (as defined below) loans (the “Incremental USD Tranche B Loans”) in an aggregate principal amount of $490 million, (ii) borrowed additional Euro Tranche B (as defined below) loans (the “Incremental Euro Tranche B Loans” and together with the Incremental USD Tranche B Loans, the “Incremental Tranche B Loans”) in an aggregate principal amount of €250 million and (iii) used a portion of the proceeds of the Incremental Tranche B Loans to prepay our USD Tranche A (as defined below) in full in an aggregate principal amount of $744 million. Remaining proceeds of the Incremental Tranche B Loans were used to pay fees and expenses in connection with the Second Amendment and will be used for working capital and general corporate purposes. The Incremental USD Tranche B Loans and the Incremental Euro Tranche B Loans have identical terms to our existing USD Tranche B and Euro Tranche B loans (collectively, together with the Incremental Tranche B

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Loans, the “Tranche B Loans”), respectively, under the Credit Agreement. Additionally, pursuant to the Second Amendment, the 1.00% prepayment premium applicable to any Tranche B Loans prepaid in connection with certain repricing transactions was extended for a period of six months following the Second Amendment Effective Date. The Incremental Tranche B Loans were issued with original issue discount of 0.25%. In connection with the execution of the Second Amendment, we paid customary fees and expenses to JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A.

On February 5, 2024, we made a voluntary prepayment of $50 million aggregate principal amount on the USD Tranche B.

On February 13, 2024, we entered into the Third Amendment to Credit Agreement (the “Third Amendment”). Pursuant to the Third Amendment, we increased the available borrowing capacity under our Revolving Facility by $175 million (the “Incremental Revolving Commitments”), from $500 million to $675 million. In connection with the execution of the Third Amendment, we paid customary fees and expenses to the lenders providing the Incremental Revolving Commitments and to JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A.

Lines of Credit and Borrowing Arrangements

Certain of our Japanese subsidiaries have lines of credit and a financing facility with various financial institutions, many of which generally expire and are renewed at three-month intervals, with the remaining having no expiration date. The lines of credit and financing facility provided for aggregate borrowings as of December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022 of up to an equivalent of $14 million and $27 million, respectively. There were no borrowings outstanding under these arrangements at December 31, 2023 or December 31, 2022.

Derivatives

We enter into derivative instruments for risk management purposes only, including derivatives designated as hedging instruments and those utilized as economic hedges. We operate internationally, and in the normal course of business, are exposed to fluctuations in interest rates and foreign exchange rates. These fluctuations can increase the costs of financing, investing and operating our business. We have used derivative instruments, such as foreign exchange forward contracts and options, to manage certain foreign currency exposure, and interest rate swaps and caps to manage certain interest rate exposure.

By nature, all financial instruments involve market and credit risks. We enter into derivative instruments with a diversified group of major investment grade financial institutions and no collateral is required. We have policies to monitor the credit risk of these counterparties. While there can be no assurance, we do not anticipate any material non-performance by any of these counterparties.

Interest Rate Swap and Interest Rate Cap Agreements

We have various interest rate swap agreements that exchange a forward-looking term rate based on Term SOFR paid on the outstanding balance of our Term Loan Facility, to a fixed rate. We acquired USD London Interbank Offered Rate (“USD LIBOR”) based interest rate cap agreements as a result of the Atotech Acquisition and had utilized these agreements to offset Term SOFR on our Term Loan Facility. Effective June 30, 2023, our USD LIBOR based interest rate caps were converted to Term SOFR. We also had two USD LIBOR based swaps that were converted to Term SOFR, effective June 30, 2023. The conversions from USD LIBOR to Term SOFR did not have a material impact on our results of operations.

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The table below summarizes interest rate swaps and interest rate caps outstanding at December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022:

The interest rate swaps are recorded at fair value on the consolidated balance sheets and changes in the fair value are recognized in accumulated OCI. To the extent these arrangements are no longer effective hedges, the hedging relationship will be discontinued and changes in the fair value of the hedging instruments from the last assessment period that were effective up to the current period will be recorded immediately in earnings. Amounts previously recorded in OCI will remain in OCI and will be reclassified to earnings when the interest payments impact consolidated earnings. If we determine that the interest payments are unlikely to occur, amounts previously recorded in OCI will be reclassified to earnings immediately. Changes in the fair value of interest rate caps are recorded immediately in earnings, as we have not designated these instruments as hedges and therefore these instruments do not qualify for hedge accounting.

Foreign Exchange Contracts and Net Investment Hedge

We hedge a portion of our forecasted foreign currency denominated intercompany sales of inventory, over a maximum period of eighteen months, using foreign exchange forward contracts accounted for as cash-flow hedges. To the extent these derivatives are effective in offsetting the variability of the hedged cash flows, and otherwise meet the hedge accounting criteria, changes in the derivatives’ fair value are not included in current earnings but are included in accumulated OCI in stockholders’ equity. These changes in fair value will subsequently be reclassified into earnings, as applicable, when the forecasted transaction occurs. To the extent that a previously designated hedging transaction is no longer an effective hedge, any ineffectiveness measured in the hedging relationship is recorded immediately in earnings in the period it occurs. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in the consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities. We do not enter into derivative instruments for trading or speculative purposes.

We also enter into foreign exchange forward contracts to hedge against changes in the consolidated balance sheets for certain subsidiaries to mitigate the risk associated with certain foreign currency transactions in the ordinary course of business. These derivatives are not designated as cash flow hedging instruments and gains or losses from these derivatives are recorded immediately in other expense, net.

We had foreign exchange forward contracts with notional amounts totaling $266 million outstanding at December 31, 2023, which included $71 million outstanding to exchange U.S. dollars to Euro, $70 million outstanding to exchange South Korean won to U.S. dollars and $65 million outstanding to exchange Japanese yen to U.S. dollar. We had foreign exchange forward contracts with notional amounts totaling $702 million outstanding at December 31, 2022, which included $485 million outstanding to exchange U.S. dollars to Euro and $75 million outstanding to exchange South Korean won to U.S. dollars.

As of December 31, 2023, the unrealized loss that will be reclassified from OCI to earnings over the next twelve months is immaterial. Gains and losses on foreign exchange forward contracts that qualify for hedge accounting are classified in cost of products in 2023 and 2022 and totaled gains of $7 million and $18 million, respectively. There were no ineffective portions of the derivatives recorded in 2023 and 2022.

We hedge certain intercompany accounts receivable and intercompany loans with foreign exchange forward contracts. Typically, as these derivatives hedge existing amounts that are denominated in foreign currencies, the derivatives do not qualify for hedge accounting. Realized and unrealized gains and losses on foreign exchange forward contracts that do not qualify for

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hedge accounting are recognized immediately in earnings. The net foreign exchange losses on these derivatives were $31 million and $8 million in 2023 and 2022, respectively. Foreign currency gains or losses are classified in other expense, net. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in our consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities. We do not hold or issue derivative financial instruments for trading purposes.

On January 1, 2023, we designated certain Euro-denominated debt as a net investment hedge to hedge a portion of our net investments in certain of our entities with functional currencies denominated in the Euro. As of December 31, 2023, we designated as a net investment hedge €593 million in aggregate principal amount of our Euro Tranche B issued in August 2022. For these nonderivative instruments, we defer recognition of the foreign currency remeasurement gains and losses within the foreign currency translation adjustment component of OCI. There was no net investment hedge designated in 2022 and all remeasurement gains and losses went directly to the statement of operations.

Contractual Obligations

As of December 31, 2023, we are a party to purchase commitments for certain inventory components and other equipment and services used in our normal operations totaling approximately $562 million. The majority of these purchase commitments covered by these arrangements are for periods of less than one year.

In addition, we have various operating leases for real estate and non-real estate items. The non-real estate leases are mainly comprised of automobiles but also include office equipment and other lower-valued items. We also have a small number of finance leases for real estate.

Future payments related to operating and finance leases are as follows:

Contractual maturities of our debt obligations as of December 31, 2023 are as follows:

We have a number of defined benefit pension plans, which cover some of our employees outside the United States. In addition, we have certain pension assets and liabilities relating to our former employees in the United Kingdom. As of December 31, 2023, our estimated benefit payments over the next 10 years amount to $101 million. The majority of the benefit payments covered by these arrangements occurs after 2028.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

Segment Reporting (Topic 280): Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures

In November 2023, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued Accounting Standard Update (“ASU”) No. 2023-07, Segment Reporting (Topic 280): Improvements to Reportable Segment Disclosures, which requires a public entity to disclose significant segment expenses and other segment items on an annual and interim basis and provide in interim periods all disclosures about a reportable segment’s profit or loss and assets that are currently required annually. Additionally, it requires a public entity to disclose the title and position of the Chief Operating Decision Maker. The ASU does not change how a public entity identifies its operating segments, aggregates them, or applies the quantitative thresholds to determine its reportable

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segments. The new standard is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2023, and interim periods within fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2024, with early adoption permitted. A public entity should apply the amendments in this ASU retrospectively to all prior periods presented in the financial statements. We are currently evaluating the impact of this ASU on our disclosures within the consolidated financial statements.

Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures

In December 2023, the FASB issued ASU No. 2023-09, Income Taxes (Topic 740): Improvements to Income Tax Disclosures, which focuses on the rate reconciliation and income taxes paid. ASU No. 2023-09 requires a public business entity (“PBE”) to disclose, on an annual basis, a tabular rate reconciliation using both percentages and currency amounts, broken out into specified categories with certain reconciling items further broken out by nature and jurisdiction to the extent those items exceed a specified threshold. In addition, all entities are required to disclose income taxes paid, net of refunds received disaggregated by federal, state/local, and foreign and by jurisdiction if the amount is at least 5% of total income tax payments, net of refunds received. For PBEs, the new standard is effective for annual periods beginning after December 15, 2024, with early adoption permitted. An entity may apply the amendments in this ASU prospectively by providing the revised disclosures for the period ending December 31, 2025 and continuing to provide the pre-ASU disclosures for the prior periods, or may apply the amendments retrospectively by providing the revised disclosures for all period presented. We are currently evaluating the impact of this ASU on our consolidated financial statements and related disclosures.

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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (“MD&A”), describes principal factors affecting the results of our operations, financial condition, cash flows and liquidity, as well as our critical accounting policies and estimates that require significant judgment and thus have the most significant potential impact on our Consolidated Financial Statements, and is intended to better allow investors to view the Company from management’s perspective. This section focuses on material events and uncertainties known to management that are reasonably likely to cause reported financial information not to be necessarily indicative of our future operating results or of our future financial condition. This section provides an analysis of our financial results for the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to the year ended December 31, 2021. For the discussion and analysis covering the year ended December 31, 2021 compared to the year ended December 31, 2020, please refer to “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” in Part II, Item 7 of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2021, as filed with the SEC on February 28, 2022.

Overview

We enable technologies that transform our world. We deliver foundational technology solutions to leading edge semiconductor manufacturing, electronics and packaging, and specialty industrial applications. We apply our broad science and engineering capabilities to create instruments, subsystems, systems, process control solutions and specialty chemicals technology that improve process performance, optimize productivity and enable unique innovations for many of the world's leading technology and industrial companies. Our solutions are critical to addressing the challenges of miniaturization and complexity in advanced device manufacturing by enabling increased power, speed, feature enhancement and optimized connectivity. Our solutions are also critical to addressing ever-increasing performance requirements across a wide array of specialty industrial applications.

Recent Events

Atotech Acquisition

On August 17, 2022 (the “Effective Date”), we completed the acquisition of Atotech Limited (“Atotech”) through the acquisition of the entire issued share capital of Atotech (the “Atotech Acquisition”) by Atotech Manufacturing, Inc. (“Bidco”), a Delaware corporation and indirect wholly owned subsidiary of the Company. The Atotech Acquisition was implemented by means of a scheme of arrangement under the laws of Jersey (the “Scheme”) pursuant to the definitive agreement entered into by us and Atotech on July 1, 2021, as amended by the Letter Agreement dated October 29, 2021 by and among us, Atotech and Bidco, and as further amended by the Amendment to the Implementation Agreement dated April 1, 2022 by and among us, Atotech and Bidco (together, the “Implementation Agreement”).

Atotech, which we operate as our Materials Solutions Division, develops leading process and manufacturing technologies for advanced surface modification, electroless and electrolytic plating, and surface finishing. Applying a comprehensive systems-and-solutions approach, Atotech's portfolio includes chemistry, equipment, software, and services for innovative and high-technology applications in a wide variety of end markets. Atotech further broadens our capabilities by bringing leadership in critical chemistry solutions for electronics and packaging and specialty industrial applications.

On the Effective Date, pursuant to the Scheme and in accordance with the terms and conditions of the Implementation Agreement, Bidco acquired each issued and outstanding ordinary share of Atotech in exchange for per share consideration of $16.20 in cash and 0.0552 of a share of Company common stock. The total net purchase price, including cash consideration, net of cash acquired, value of MKS shares issued, repayment of Atotech debt and settlement of certain Atotech share-based awards, totaled $5.7 billion. We funded the payment of the aggregate cash consideration with a combination of cash on hand and the proceeds from the New Term Loan Facility, as defined below. As a result of the Atotech Acquisition, we issued an aggregate of 10.7 million shares of our common stock to the former Atotech shareholders.

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Ransomware Event

On February 3, 2023, we identified that we had become subject to a ransomware event and took immediate action to activate our incident response and business continuity protocols to contain the incident. We took immediate action to contain the incident and engaged appropriate incident response professionals and notified law enforcement authorities. We then initiated the recovery phase, contained the incident, and have since made substantial progress by completing restoration of many of our information technology systems, including our enterprise resource planning systems, and reopening certain of our affected manufacturing and service operations.

Based on our investigation, we concluded ransomware actors encrypted certain of our systems by deploying malware. This incident required us to temporarily suspend operations at certain of our facilities and has had a material impact in the first quarter of 2023 on our ability to process orders, ship products and provide service to our Vacuum Solutions Division and Photonics Solutions Division customers. The incident did not impact the operations of our Materials Solutions Division. We expect this incident will have a negative impact on our revenue for the first quarter of 2023 of at least $200 million.

We have engaged security specialists to assist in the review, assessment and remediation of our information technologies controls, are strengthening access requirements and unauthorized access detection and are implementing procedures to facilitate more timely restoration of our financial reporting systems.

We have incurred costs in the first quarter of 2023 and expect to continue to incur costs, which may be significant, in connection with this incident. In the first quarter of 2023, these costs have been primarily comprised of various third-party consulting services, including forensic experts, restoration experts, legal counsel, and other information technology and accounting professional expenses, enhancements to our cybersecurity measures, costs to restore our systems and access our data, and employee-related expenses, including with respect to increased overtime. We expect to incur these and other costs related to this incident in the future. As a result of the incident, our relationship with our customers may be negatively impacted and we may be subject to subsequent investigations, claims or actions, in addition to other costs, fines, penalties, or other obligations related to impacted data, whether or not such data is misused. In addition, we are subject to a class action lawsuit arising from this ransomware event. We are unable to predict at this time the potential timing and outcome of the claim and whether we may be subject to further private litigation or inquiries and proceedings by various government agencies, law enforcement and other governmental authorities. For additional information on the risks we face related to this incident and other cybersecurity incidents, refer to “Risk Factors—Risks Related to Cybersecurity, Data Privacy and Intellectual Property Protection” and “Risk Factors—Legal, Tax, Regulatory and Compliance Risks” in Part I, Item 1A of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

Segments and Markets

In the first quarter of 2022, we updated the names of our then-three divisions in order to simplify our naming convention. These divisions, formerly known as the Vacuum & Analysis Division, the Light & Motion Division and the Equipment & Solutions Division, were renamed the Vacuum Solutions Division (“VSD”), the Photonics Solutions Division (“PSD”) and the Equipment Solutions Division (“ESD”), respectively. Following the Atotech Acquisition, we refer to Atotech as our Materials Solutions Division (“MSD”). During the third quarter of 2022, we consolidated our equipment solutions business, previously ESD, into PSD, with prior periods recast to reflect this change. Our reportable segments now consist of our three divisions: VSD, PSD and MSD.

VSD delivers foundational technology solutions to leading edge semiconductor manufacturing, electronics and packaging and specialty industrial applications. VSD products are derived from our core competencies in pressure measurement and control, flow measurement and control, gas and vapor delivery, gas composition analysis, electronic control technology, reactive gas generation and delivery, power generation and delivery, and vacuum technology.

PSD provides a full range of solutions including lasers, beam measurement and profiling, precision motion control, vibration isolation systems, photonics instruments, temperature sensing, opto-mechanical components, optical elements, laser-based systems for flexible printed circuit board (“PCB”) processing, laser-based systems for high density interconnect PCB and package manufacturing, and high-speed multi-layer ceramic testing.

MSD develops leading process and manufacturing technologies for advanced surface modification, electroless and electrolytic plating, and surface finishing. Atotech is a brand within MSD. Applying a comprehensive systems-and-solutions approach, MSD's portfolio includes chemistry, equipment, software, and services for innovative and high-technology applications in a wide variety of end-markets.

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Semiconductor Market

MKS is a critical solutions provider for semiconductor manufacturing. Our products are used in major semiconductor processing steps, such as depositing thin films of material onto silicon wafer substrates, etching, cleaning, lithography, metrology and inspection. The semiconductor industry continually faces new challenges as products become smaller, more powerful and highly mobile. Ultra-thin layers, smaller critical dimensions, new materials, 3D structures, and the ongoing need for higher yield and productivity drive the need for tighter process measurement and control, all of which MKS supports. We believe we are the broadest critical subsystem provider in the wafer fabrication equipment (“WFE”) ecosystem and address over 85% of the market.

Approximately 58% and 62% of our net revenues for 2022 and 2021, respectively, were from sales to customers in the semiconductor market. We estimate global spending on WFE was approximately $97 billion in 2022 compared to approximately $89 billion in 2021, driven by increases in memory and logic and reflective of strong secular demand trends increasing semiconductor demand, such as robust data growth, 5G, Internet-of-Things, artificial intelligence, and autonomous vehicles. We anticipate that the semiconductor market will continue to account for a substantial portion of our sales. Following the Atotech Acquisition, our end-market exposure has become more diversified and in the fourth quarter of 2022, revenue from the semiconductor market was 46% of total net revenues.

Net revenues in our semiconductor market increased by $216 million, or 12%, in 2022, compared to 2021, due to increases in net revenues in VSD and PSD. VSD net revenues in our semiconductor market increased $114 million due to broad-based increases in demand and volume increases for VSD products. PSD net revenues in our semiconductor market increased $102 million, driven by demand for our photonics solutions in lithography, metrology and inspection, as well as contributions from our acquisition of Photon Control Inc. (“Photon Control”) in July 2021. Foreign exchange rates had a negative effect of approximately $82 million on net revenues in our semiconductor market, as the U.S. dollar strengthened against most foreign currencies in 2022.

The semiconductor capital equipment industry is subject to rapid demand shifts, which are difficult to predict, and we cannot be certain as to the timing or extent of future demand or any future weakness in the semiconductor capital equipment industry. We anticipate that our semiconductor market revenue could decrease in 2023 as a result of expected softening in the semiconductor market following three years of significant growth.

In 2022, we experienced continued supply chain disruptions, component shortages and significant price increases for certain components in our semiconductor market due to global capacity constraints compounded by increasing global demand and the COVID-19 pandemic. We expect these disruptions and shortages to continue for at least the near-term.

In October 2022, the U.S. Department of Commerce's Bureau of Industry and Security (“BIS”) published regulations that introduce new and novel restrictions related to end-uses in semiconductor, semiconductor manufacturing, supercomputer, and advanced computing, along with certain equipment used to develop and produce them (the “New BIS Rules”). The New BIS Rules restrict our direct and indirect sales to China and primarily impact our semiconductor market. As a result of the New BIS Rules, we expect an overall annualized reduction of net revenues in the range of $250 million to $350 million. While we continue to adjust our policies and practices to ensure compliance with these regulations, and we will seek to mitigate their impact, there can be no assurances that the New BIS Rules will not have an effect on our business that exceeds our expectations.

Electronics and Packaging

MKS is a foundational solutions provider for the electronics and packaging market. Our portfolio includes photonics components, laser drilling systems, electronics chemistries and plating equipment, that are critical for the manufacturing of PCBs and package substrates, as well as in wafer level packaging (“WLP”) applications. Similar to the semiconductor industry, the PCB, package substrate and WLP industries demand smaller features, greater density, and better performance. We characterize our complementary offering of laser systems and chemistry solutions as Optimize the Interconnect, to reflect the unique technology enablement we provide at the Interconnect level within PCBs, package substrates and WLPs.

In addition, this end-market also includes sales of our vacuum and photonics solutions for display manufacturing applications.

Approximately 15% and 12% of our net revenues for 2022 and 2021, respectively, were from sales to customers in our electronic and packaging market.

Net revenues from customers in our electronics and packaging market increased by $197 million, or 57%, in 2022 compared to 2021. This increase was driven primarily by the Atotech Acquisition, with MSD net revenues of $334 million in 2022, mainly from customers in PCB manufacturing. This increase was offset by a decrease of $134 million in PSD net revenues, in part due to decreased industry demand for flexible PCB via drilling systems as customers have temporarily slowed capacity expansion. In addition, demand for flexible PCB via drilling systems, which are a part of PSD, and demand for chemistry solutions, which are a part of MSD, have softened due to a decline in end market demand for electronics, such as smartphones and personal computers.

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In addition, foreign exchange rates had a negative effect of approximately $14 million on net revenues in our electronics and packaging market, as the dollar strengthened against most foreign currencies in 2022.

Specialty Industrial

MKS’ strategy in specialty industrial is to leverage our domain expertise and proprietary technologies across a broad array of applications in industrial technologies, life and health sciences, and research and defense markets.

Industrial Technologies

Industrial technologies encompasses a wide range of diverse applications, including chemistries for functional coatings, surface finishing and wear resistance in the automobile industry, vacuum solutions for synthetic diamond manufacturing and photonics for solar manufacturing. Other applications include, but are not limited to, vacuum and photonics solutions for light emitting diode and laser diode manufacturing.

Life and Health Sciences

Our products for life and health sciences are used in a diverse array of applications, including bioimaging, medical instrument sterilization, medical device manufacturing, analytical, diagnostic and surgical instrumentation, consumable medical supply manufacturing and pharmaceutical production.

Research and Defense

Our products for research and defense are sold to government, university and industrial laboratories for applications involving research and development in materials science, physical chemistry, photonics, optics and electronics materials. Our products are also sold for monitoring and defense applications, including surveillance, imaging and infrastructure protection.

Approximately 27% and 26% of our net revenues for 2022 and 2021, respectively, were from customers in our specialty industrial market.

Net revenues from customers in our specialty industrial market increased by $184 million, or 24%, in 2022, compared to 2021. This increase was driven primarily by the Atotech Acquisition with MSD net revenues of $183 million in 2022. Though demand across our specialty industrial market remained relatively stable, our general metal finishing business, which is part of MSD, continues to be impacted by supply chain constraints in the automotive market. Foreign exchange rates had a negative effect of approximately $31 million on net revenues in our specialty industrial market, as the U.S. dollar strengthened against most foreign currencies in 2022.

International Markets

A significant portion of our net revenues is from sales to customers in international markets. International net revenues accounted for approximately 58% and 57% of our total net revenues in 2022 and 2021, respectively. A significant portion of our international net revenues was from customers in China, Germany and South Korea. We expect that international revenues will continue to account for a significant percentage of total net revenues for the foreseeable future as a result of the Atotech Acquisition. Long-lived assets located outside of the United States accounted for approximately 57% and 28% of our total long-lived assets at December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. The increase as of December 31, 2022, compared to December 31, 2021, primarily related to the Atotech Acquisition. Long-lived assets include, property, plant and equipment, net, right-of-use assets, and certain other assets and exclude goodwill, intangible assets and long-term tax-related accounts.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

MD&A discusses our Consolidated Financial Statements, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (“U.S. GAAP”). The preparation of these financial statements requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. On an ongoing basis, we evaluate our estimates and judgments, including those related to revenue recognition, inventory, warranty costs, pension plan valuations, stock-based compensation expense, intangible assets, goodwill and other long-lived assets and income taxes. We base our estimates and judgments on historical experience and on various other factors that are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of

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assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

We believe the following critical accounting policies affect the most significant judgments, assumptions and estimates we use in preparing our Consolidated Financial Statements:

Revenue Recognition. We account for revenue using Accounting Standards Codification 606, “Revenue from Contracts with Customers” (“ASC Topic 606”). We apply ASC Topic 606 using the following steps:

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Identify the contract with a customer

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Identify the performance obligations in the contract

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Determine the transaction price

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Allocate the transaction price to performance obligations in the contract

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Recognize revenue when or as we satisfy a performance obligation

Revenue is recognized when or as obligations under the terms of a contract with our customer has been satisfied and control has transferred to the customer. The majority of our performance obligations, and associated revenue, are transferred to customers at a point in time, generally upon shipment of a product to the customer or receipt of the product by the customer and without significant judgments. We recognize revenue over time for contracts relating to the manufacturing, modifications and retrofits of our plating equipment, as the equipment is built to customer specification, and we have an enforceable right to payment for the performance completed to date. For these sales, we use the cost-to-cost input method to measure progress. In cases, where cost-to-cost is not proportionate to our progress in satisfying the performance obligation because of uninstalled materials, we adjust the measure of progress and recognize revenue to the extent of cost incurred to satisfy the performance obligation under the contract. Revenue from customized products with no alternative future use to us, and that have an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date, are also recorded over time. We consider this to be a faithful depiction of the transfer to the customer of revenue over time as the work is performed or service is delivered. Adjustments for custom products were not material for 2022 or 2021.

Installation services, other than those related to our plating equipment, are not significant, are usually completed in a short period of time and, therefore, are recorded at a point in time when the installation services are completed, rather than over time, as they are not material. Extended warranty, service contracts, and repair services, which are transferred to the customer over time, are recorded as revenue as the services are performed. For repair services, we make an accrual at each quarter end based upon historical repair times within our product groups to record revenue based upon the estimated number of days completed to date, which is consistent with ratable recognition.

Revenue is measured as the amount of consideration we expect to receive in exchange for transferring goods or providing services. Performance obligations promised in a contract are identified based on the products or services that will be transferred to the customer that are both capable of being distinct, whereby the customer can benefit from the product or service either on its own or together with other resources that are readily available from third parties or from us, and are distinct in the context of the contract, whereby the transfer of the product or service is separately identifiable from other promises in the contract. Sales, value add, and other taxes we collect concurrent with revenue-producing activities are excluded from revenue. Our normal payment terms are 30 to 60 days but vary by the type and location of our customers and the products or services offered. The time between invoicing and when payment is due is not significant. For certain products and services and customer types, we require payment before the products or services are delivered to, or performed for, the customer. None of our contracts in each of the periods presented contained a significant financing component.

We periodically enter into contracts with our customers in which a customer may purchase a combination of goods and or services, such as products with installation services or extended warranties. These contracts include multiple deliverables that we evaluate to determine if the deliverables are separate performance obligations. Once we determine the performance obligations, we then determine the transaction price, which includes estimating the amount of variable consideration to be included in the transaction price, if any. To the extent the transaction price includes variable consideration, we estimate the amount of variable consideration that should be included in the transaction price utilizing either the expected value method or the most likely amount method, depending on the method we expect to better predict the amount of consideration to which we will be entitled. There are no constraints on the variable consideration recorded. We then allocate the transaction price to each performance obligation in the contract based on a relative stand-alone selling price charged separately to customers or using an expected cost-plus margin method. The corresponding revenues are recognized when or as the related performance obligations are satisfied, which are noted above. The impact of variable consideration was immaterial in each of the periods presented.

We sell separately priced service contracts and extended warranty contracts related to certain of our products, in particular related to our plating and laser-based products. These separately priced contracts generally range from 12 to 60 months. We

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recognize revenue over the term of the contract in proportion to the costs expected to be incurred in satisfying the obligations under the contract.

We monitor and track the amount of product returns, provide for sales return allowances and reduce revenue at the time of shipment for the estimated amount of such future returns, based on historical experience. While product returns have historically been within our expectations and established provisions, there is no assurance that we will continue to experience the same return rates that we have in the past. Any significant increase in product return rates could have a material adverse impact on our operating results for the period in which such returns materialize.

While we maintain a credit approval process, significant judgments are made by management in connection with assessing our customers' ability to pay at the time of shipment. Despite this assessment, from time to time, our customers are unable to meet their payment obligations. We continuously monitor our customers' creditworthiness and use our judgment in establishing a provision for estimated credit losses based upon our historical experience and any specific customer collection issues that we have identified. While such credit losses have historically been within our expectations and the provisions established, there is no assurance that we will continue to experience the same credit loss rates that we have in the past. A significant change in the liquidity or financial position of our customers could have a material adverse impact on the collectability of accounts receivable and our future operating results. Bad debt expense was immaterial in 2022 and 2021.

Inventory. We value our inventory at the lower of cost or net realizable value, cost being determined using a standard costing system that approximates actual costs, based on a first-in, first-out method. We regularly review inventory quantities on hand and record a provision to write-down excess and obsolete inventory to its estimated net realizable value, if less than cost, based primarily on our estimated forecast of product demand. Once our inventory value is written-down and a new cost basis has been established, the inventory value is not increased due to demand increases. Demand for our products can fluctuate significantly. A significant increase in the demand for our products could result in a short-term increase in the cost of inventory purchases as a result of supply shortages or a decrease in the cost of inventory purchases as a result of volume discounts, while a significant decrease in demand could result in an increase in the charges for excess inventory quantities on hand. In addition, our industry is subject to technological change, new product development and product technological obsolescence that could result in an increase in the amount of obsolete inventory quantities on hand. Therefore, any significant unanticipated changes in demand or technological developments could have a significant impact on the value of our inventory and our reported operating results. Excess and obsolete expense was $21 million and $16 million for 2022 and 2021, respectively.

Warranty Costs. We provide for the estimated costs to fulfill customer warranty obligations upon the recognition of the related revenue. We provide warranty coverage for our products for periods ranging from 12 to 36 months, with the majority of our products for periods ranging from 12 to 24 months. Short-term accrued warranty obligations, which expire within one year, are included in other current liabilities and long-term accrued warranty obligations are included in other liabilities in the consolidated balance sheets. We estimate the anticipated costs of repairing our products under such warranties based on the historical costs of the repairs and any known specific product issues. The assumptions we use to estimate warranty accruals are re-evaluated periodically in light of actual experience and, when appropriate, the accruals are adjusted. Our determination of the appropriate level of warranty accrual is based upon estimates. Should product failure rates differ from our estimates, actual costs could vary significantly from our expectations. Defective products will be either repaired or replaced, generally at our option, upon meeting certain criteria.

Pension Plans. Several of our non-U.S. subsidiaries have defined benefit pension plans covering employees of those subsidiaries. Some of the plans are unfunded, as permitted under the plans and applicable laws. For financial reporting purposes, we obtained actuarial reports supporting the calculation of net periodic pension costs that used a number of actuarial assumptions, including a discount rate for plan obligations, an assumed rate of return on pension plan assets and an assumed rate of compensation increase for employees covered by the various plans. We reviewed these actuarial assumptions and concluded they were reasonable based upon our judgment, considering known trends and uncertainties. Actual results that differ from these assumptions would impact future expense recognition and the cash funding requirements of our pension plans.

Stock-Based Compensation Expense. We record compensation expense for all stock-based compensation awards to employees and directors based upon the estimated fair market value of the underlying instrument. Accordingly, stock-based compensation cost is measured at the grant date, based upon the fair value of the award.

We typically issue restricted stock units (“RSUs”) as stock-based compensation. We also provide certain employees the opportunity to purchase our shares through an Employee Stock Purchase Plan (“ESPP”). For RSUs, the fair value is the closing market price of the stock on the date of grant. We estimate the fair value of shares issued under our ESPP using the Black-Scholes pricing model, which incorporates a number of complex and subjective variables, including expected stock price volatility over the term of the awards, expected life, risk free interest rate and expected dividends. Management determined that blended stock-based compensation, a combination of historical and implied volatility, is more reflective of market conditions and a better indicator of expected volatility than historical or implied volatility alone.

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Certain RSUs involve stock to be issued upon the achievement of performance conditions (“performance shares”) under our stock incentive plan. Such performance shares become available, subject to time-based vesting conditions if, and to the extent that, financial performance criteria for the applicable period are achieved. Accordingly, the number of performance shares earned will vary based on the level of achievement of financial performance objectives for the applicable period. Until such time that our financial performance can ultimately be determined, each quarter we estimate the number of performance shares to be earned based on an evaluation of the probability of achieving the financial performance objectives. Such estimates are revised, if necessary, in subsequent periods when the underlying factors change our evaluation of the probability of achieving the financial performance objectives. Accordingly, share-based compensation expense associated with performance shares may differ significantly from the amount recorded in the current period.

The assumptions used in calculating the fair value of share-based compensation awards represents management’s best estimates, but these estimates involve inherent uncertainties and the application of management’s judgment. As a result, if factors change and we use different assumptions, our stock-based compensation expense could be materially different in the future.

Intangible Assets, Goodwill and Other Long-Lived Assets. As a result of our acquisitions, we have identified intangible assets and generated significant goodwill. Definite-lived intangible assets are valued based on estimates of future cash flows and amortized over their estimated useful life. Determining fair value requires the exercise of significant judgment, including assumptions about appropriate discount rates as well as forecasted revenue, gross profit and operating expenses.

Goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets are subject to annual impairment testing as well as testing upon the occurrence of any event that indicates a potential impairment. Intangible assets and other long-lived assets are also subject to an impairment test if there is an indicator of impairment. If our expectations of future results and cash flows are significantly diminished, intangible assets and goodwill may be impaired and the resulting charge to operations may be material. When we determine that the carrying value of intangibles or other long-lived assets may not be recoverable based upon the existence of one or more indicators of impairment, we use the projected undiscounted cash flow method to determine whether an impairment exists, and then measure the impairment using discounted cash flows. To measure impairment for goodwill, we compare the fair value of our reporting units by measuring discounted cash flows to the book value of the reporting units. Goodwill would be impaired if the resulting implied fair value was less than the recorded book value of the goodwill.

The estimation of useful lives and expected cash flows require us to make significant judgments regarding future periods that are subject to some factors outside of our control. Changes in these estimates can result in significant revisions to the carrying value of these assets and may result in material charges to the results of operations.

We have elected to perform our annual goodwill impairment test as of October 31 of each year, or more often if events or circumstances indicate that there may be impairment. Goodwill is the amount by which the cost of acquired net assets exceeded the fair value of those net assets on the date of acquisition. We allocate goodwill to reporting units at the time of acquisition or when there is a change in the reporting structure and base that allocation on which reporting units will benefit from the acquired assets and liabilities. Reporting units are defined as operating segments or one level below an operating segment, referred to as a component. The estimated fair value of our reporting units was based on discounted cash flow models derived from internal earnings and internal and external market forecasts. Determining fair value requires the exercise of significant judgment, including assumptions about appropriate discount and perpetual growth rates, as well as forecasted revenue growth rates and gross profit and operating expenses. Discount rates are based on a weighted average cost of capital (“WACC”), which represents the average rate a business must pay its providers of debt and equity. The WACC used to test goodwill is derived from a group of comparable companies. Assumptions in estimating future cash flows are subject to a high degree of judgment and complexity. We make every effort to forecast these future cash flows as accurately as possible with the information available at the time the forecast is developed.

During the quarter ended June 30, 2022, following softening industry demand for flexible PCB via drilling equipment and declines in projected operating results for the equipment solutions business (“ESB”) reporting unit, we evaluated the carrying values of goodwill, purchased intangible assets and other long-lived assets assigned to ESB and determined the carrying values were recoverable. We performed our analysis using the income approach and key underlying assumptions included forecasted revenue, gross profit and operating expenses as well as discount rate. Fair value estimates are based on complex series of judgments about future events and uncertainties and rely heavily on estimates and assumptions that we have been deemed reasonable. There are inherent uncertainties and management judgment required in these determinations. In our quantitative assessment of ESB, we estimated the fair value exceeded carrying value by 10%. There were no other triggering events that required an impairment assessment in 2022.

In performing our annual goodwill impairment test, we are permitted to first assess qualitative factors to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of our reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, including goodwill. In performing the qualitative assessment, we consider certain events and circumstances specific to the reporting unit and to the entity as a whole, such as macroeconomic conditions, industry and market considerations, overall financial performance and cost factors when evaluating whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. We are also

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permitted to bypass the qualitative assessment and proceed directly to the quantitative test. If we choose to undertake the qualitative assessment and we conclude that it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, we would then proceed to the quantitative impairment test. In the quantitative assessment, we compare the fair value of the reporting unit to its carrying amount, which includes goodwill. If the fair value exceeds the carrying value, no impairment loss exists. If the fair value is less than the carrying amount, a goodwill impairment loss is measured and recorded.

As of October 31, 2022, we performed our annual impairment assessment of goodwill using a qualitative assessment for all of our reporting units. We determined that it was more likely than not that the fair values were more than the carrying values for each of the reporting units.

We will continue to monitor and evaluate the carrying value of goodwill. If market and economic conditions or business performance deteriorate, this could increase the likelihood of us recording an impairment charge.

Income Taxes. We evaluate the realizability of our net deferred tax assets and assess the need for a valuation allowance on a quarterly basis. The future benefit to be derived from our deferred tax assets is dependent upon our ability to generate sufficient future taxable income in each jurisdiction of the right type to realize the assets. We record a valuation allowance to reduce our net deferred tax assets to the amount that is expected to be realized. To the extent we establish a valuation allowance an expense is recorded within the provision for income taxes line in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income.

Accounting for income taxes requires a two-step approach to recognize and measure uncertain tax positions. The first step is to evaluate the tax position for recognition by determining if, based on the technical merits, it is more likely than not that the position will be sustained upon audit, including resolutions of related appeals or litigation processes, if any. The second step is to measure the tax benefit as the largest amount that is more than 50% likely of being realized upon ultimate settlement. We re-evaluate these uncertain tax positions on a quarterly basis. This evaluation is based on factors including, but not limited to, changes in facts or circumstances, changes in tax law, effectively settled issues under audit and new audit activity. Any change in these factors could result in the recognition of a tax benefit or an additional charge to the tax provision.

Derivatives. As a result of our global operating activities and variable interest rate borrowings, we are exposed to market risks from changes in foreign currency exchange rates and interest rates, which may adversely affect our operating results and financial position. We enter into derivative instruments for risk management purposes only, including derivatives designated as hedging instruments and those utilized as economic hedges. We do not enter into derivative instruments for trading or speculative purposes.

We have used derivative instruments, such as foreign exchange forward contracts and options, to manage certain foreign currency exposure, and interest rate swaps and interest rate caps to manage interest rate exposure. Changes in fair value of derivative instruments are recognized in the consolidated statement of operations or, if hedge accounting is applied, in other comprehensive income for the effective portion of the changes in fair value. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in the consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities. All derivatives are stated at fair value in the balance sheet.

Accounting principles for qualifying hedges require detailed documentation that describes the relationship between the hedging instrument and the hedged item, including, but not limited to, the risk management objectives and hedging strategy and the methods to assess the effectiveness of the hedging relationship. We assess the hedging relationships, both at the inception of the hedge and on an ongoing basis, using either the critical terms matching approach or a regression analysis approach to determine whether the designated hedging instrument is highly effective in offsetting changes in the value of the hedged item.

By nature, all financial instruments involve market and credit risks. We enter into derivative instruments with major investment grade financial institutions, for which no collateral is required. We have policies to monitor the credit risk of these counterparties. While there can be no assurance, we do not anticipate any material non-performance by any of these counterparties.

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Results of Operations

The following table sets forth, for the periods indicated, the percentage of total net revenues of certain line items included in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income data:

Year Ended December 31, 2022 compared to 2021

Net Revenues

Net product revenues increased $540 million in 2022, compared to 2021, primarily due to the Atotech Acquisition with MSD net product revenues of $486 million in 2022. Additional increases were primarily due to volume increases in sales to our semiconductor market in VSD and PSD, partially offset by decreases in sales to our electronics and packaging market, primarily in PSD due to decreased industry demand for flexible PCB via drilling systems and other products for the consumer electronics markets.

Net service revenues consisted mainly of fees for services related to the maintenance and repair of our products, sales of spare parts, and installation and training. Net service revenues increased $57 million in 2022, compared to 2021, primarily due to the Atotech Acquisition with MSD net service revenues of $31 million in 2022. Additional increases were primarily due to increases in VSD and PSD from increases in sales to our semiconductor and electronics and packaging markets.

Total international net revenues, including product and service, were $2.1 billion in 2022, compared to $1.7 billion in 2021. The increase in 2022 was primarily driven by the Atotech Acquisition. The increase in international net revenues was primarily from increases in sales to customers in China, Germany, Israel and Japan.

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The following table sets forth our net revenues by reportable segment:

Net Revenues

Net revenues for our VSD segment increased $104 million in 2022, compared to 2021, primarily due to volume increases in the semiconductor market.

Net revenues for our PSD segment decreased $24 million in 2022, compared to 2021, primarily due to decreases in our electronics and packaging market resulting from decreased industry demand for flexible PCB via drilling systems and other products for the consumer electronics market, offset by volume increases in the semiconductor market.

Net revenues for our MSD segment in 2022 consist of revenues from the Atotech Acquisition.

The following table sets forth gross profit as a percentage of net revenues by product and service:

Gross Profit

Gross profit as a percentage of net product revenues decreased by 3.7 percentage points in 2022, compared to 2021, primarily due to higher materials costs reflective of global component shortages, higher logistics costs and unfavorable overhead absorption arising from the effect of component shortages on manufacturing efficiencies. Additionally, as a result of the Atotech Acquisition, we incurred a $52 million step-up to fair value adjustment on acquired inventory, which was fully amortized during the year ended December 31, 2022 and negatively impacted our gross margin. These decreases were partially offset by higher revenue volumes and favorable product mix.

Gross profit as a percentage of net service revenues increased by 0.9 percentage points in 2022, compared to 2021, which was reflective of our efforts to transition customers to higher-value offerings, such as service contracts, and the mix of products serviced. The increase was partially offset by unfavorable overhead efficiency on service-related parts.

The following table sets forth gross profit as a percentage of net revenues by reportable segment:

Gross Profit

Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for our VSD segment decreased primarily due to higher material costs reflective of global component shortages, higher logistics costs and unfavorable absorption. These decreases were partially offset by favorable product mix and higher revenue volumes.

Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for our PSD segment decreased primarily due to higher material costs reflective of global component shortages, higher logistics costs and unfavorable absorption. These decreases were partially offset by favorable product mix.

Gross profit as a percentage of net revenues for our MSD segment was 37.1% for the year ended December 31, 2022 and included a charge of $52 million of inventory step-up amortization related to the Atotech Acquisition.

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Research and Development

Research and development expenses increased $41 million in 2022, compared to 2021, primarily due to an increase of $31 million resulting from the Atotech Acquisition. The remaining increase of $10 million was primarily due to increases of $6 million in compensation-related costs, $2 million in project materials and $2 million in occupancy costs.

Our research and development efforts are primarily focused on developing and improving our instruments, components, chemistry, subsystems, systems and process control solutions to improve process performance and productivity. We have thousands of products, and our research and development efforts primarily consist of a large number of projects related to these products, none of which is individually material to us. Projects typically have a duration of 3 to 36 months but may be extended for development of new products.

We continue to make product advancements to meet our customers' evolving needs. We have developed, and continue to develop, new products to address industry trends, such as the shrinking of integrated circuit critical dimensions and technology inflections, and, in the flat panel display and solar markets, the transition to larger substrate sizes, which require more advanced processing and process control technology, the continuing drive toward more complex and accurate components and devices within the handset and tablet market, the transition to 5G for both devices and infrastructure, the growth in units and via counts in the high density interconnect PCB drilling market, and the industry transition to electric cars in the automotive market. In addition, we have developed, and continue to develop, products that support the migration to new classes of materials, ultra-thin layers, and 3D structures that are used in small geometry manufacturing. In our chemistry and equipment plating businesses, a majority of our research and development investment supports existing customers' product improvement needs and their short-term research and development goals, which enables us to pioneer new high-value solutions while limiting commercial risk. Research and development expenses consist primarily of salaries and related expenses for personnel engaged in research and development, fees paid to consultants, material costs for prototypes and other expenses related to the design, development, testing and enhancement of our products.

We believe that the continued investment in research and development and ongoing development of new products are essential to the expansion of our markets. We expect to continue to make significant investment in research and development activities. We are subject to risks from products not being developed in a timely manner, as well as from rapidly changing customer requirements and competitive threats from other companies and technologies. Our success primarily depends on our products being designed into new generations of equipment for the semiconductor, electronics and packaging, and specialty industrial markets. We develop products that are technologically advanced so that they are positioned to be chosen for use in each successive generation of semiconductor capital equipment and advanced markets applications. If our products are not chosen to be designed into our customers’ products, our net revenues may be reduced during the lifespan of those products.

Selling, General and Administrative

Selling, general and administrative expenses increased $103 million during 2022, compared to 2021, primarily due to an increase of $101 million resulting from the Atotech Acquisition. Excluding the Atotech Acquisition, VSD and PSD selling, general and administrative expenses increased by $2 million primarily due to $2 million in information technology costs and $2 million in travel related expenses offset by a decrease of $2 million in compensation related costs.

Acquisition and Integration Costs

Acquisition and integration costs incurred during 2022 were primarily related to consulting and professional fees related to the Atotech Acquisition. Acquisition and integration costs incurred during 2021 primarily related to consulting and professional fees in connection with our acquisition of Photon Control, our then-pending Atotech Acquisition and a proposed acquisition that was not consummated.

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Restructuring and Other

Restructuring and other costs incurred in 2022 primarily related to executive payments related to the Atotech Acquisition, severance costs due to a global cost-saving initiative, the closure of two facilities in Europe and movement of certain products to low-cost regions. Restructuring and other costs incurred in 2021 primarily related to duplicate facility costs attributed to entering into new facility leases, severance costs due to a global cost-saving initiative, costs related to the closure of two facilities in Europe and the movement of certain products to low-cost regions.

Amortization of Intangible Assets

Amortization of intangible assets increased $91 million in 2022, compared to 2021, due primarily to amortization of intangible assets from the Atotech Acquisition.

Gain on Sale of Long-Lived Assets

We recorded a gain from the sale of a minority interest investment in a private company in 2022.

Interest Expense, Net

Interest expense, net, increased by $148 million in 2022, compared to 2021, primarily due to borrowings on the New Term Loan Facility we entered into in connection with the Atotech Acquisition.

Other Expense, Net

Other expense, net, for 2022 and 2021 primarily related to changes in foreign exchange rates.

Provision for Income Taxes

Our effective tax rates for 2022 and 2021 were 23.1% and 17.1%, respectively. Our effective tax rate for 2022 was higher than the U.S. statutory tax rate, mainly due to additional withholding taxes related to the change of indefinite reinvestment assertion, the U.S. global intangible low-taxed income (“GILTI”) inclusion, offset by the U.S. deduction for foreign derived intangible income (“FDII”) and the geographic mix of income earned by our international subsidiaries being taxed at rates lower than the U.S. statutory tax rate.

Our effective tax rate for 2021 was lower than the U.S. statutory tax rate, mainly due to the geographic mix of income earned by our international subsidiaries being taxed at rates lower than the U.S. statutory tax rate, the U.S. deduction for FDII and research credits offset by the tax effects of non-deductible executive compensation and the GILTI inclusion.

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As of December 31, 2022, total gross unrecognized tax benefits, which excludes interest and penalties, was $83 million. As of December 31, 2021, total gross unrecognized tax benefits, which excludes interest and penalties, was $43 million. The net increase was primarily attributable to the addition of historical gross unrecognized tax benefits as a result of the Atotech Acquisition.

We accrue interest and, if applicable, penalties for any uncertain tax positions. Interest and penalties are classified as a component of income tax expense. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, we accrued interest on unrecognized tax benefits of approximately $6 million and $1 million, respectively.

Over the next 12 months, it is reasonably possible that we may recognize approximately $3 million of previously net unrecognized tax benefits, excluding interest and penalties, related to various U.S. federal, state and foreign tax positions, primarily due to the expiration of statutes of limitations.

We are subject to examination by U.S. federal, state and foreign tax authorities. The U.S. federal statute of limitations remains open for tax years 2018 through the present. The statute of limitations for our tax filings in other jurisdictions varies between fiscal years 2015 through the present. We also have certain federal credit carryforwards and state tax loss and credit carryforwards that are open to examination for tax years 2002 through the present. In addition, the 2017 transition tax remains open for examination.

In 2022, we recorded a net benefit to income tax expense of $4 million, due to the closure of a tax audit and expiration of certain statutes of limitations. In 2021, we recorded a net benefit to income tax expense of $4 million, excluding interest and penalties, due to reserve releases related to the expiration of certain statutes of limitations for previously open tax years.

Our future effective tax rate depends on various factors, including the impact of tax legislation, further interpretations and guidance from U.S. federal and state governments on the impact of proposed regulations issued by the IRS, as well as the geographic composition of our pre-tax income and changes in income tax reserves for unrecognized tax benefits. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (“OECD”) Pillar Two Model Rules (Pillar Two) for a global 15% minimum tax are in the process of being adopted by a number of jurisdictions in which we operate. Pillar Two may materially increase our future effective tax rate. We cannot be certain regarding the amount of the effective tax rate increase until all jurisdictions in which we operate adopt legislation and implement a version of Pillar Two. We monitor these factors and timely adjust our estimates of the effective tax rate accordingly. We expect the geographic mix of pre-tax income will continue to have a favorable impact on our effective tax rate. However, the geographic mix of pre-tax income can change based on multiple factors including the Atotech Acquisition, resulting in changes to the effective tax rate in future periods. While we believe we have adequately provided for all tax positions, amounts asserted by taxing authorities could materially differ from our accrued positions as a result of uncertain and complex application of tax law and regulations. Additionally, the recognition and measurement of certain tax benefits include estimates and judgment by management. Accordingly, we could record additional provisions or benefits for U.S. federal, state, and foreign tax matters in future periods as new information becomes available.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Cash, cash equivalents and short-term marketable investments at December 31, 2022 and December 31, 2021 totaled $910 million and $1.0 billion, respectively. The decrease primarily related to the use of cash to fund the payment of a portion of the purchase price for the Atotech Acquisition. The primary driver in our current and anticipated future cash flows is, and we expect will continue to be, cash generated from operations, consisting primarily of our net income, excluding non-cash charges and changes in operating assets and liabilities.

Our total cash and cash equivalents and short-term marketable investments at December 31, 2022 consisted of $173 million held in the United States and $737 million held by our foreign subsidiaries. We believe that our current cash and investments position and available borrowing capacity, together with the cash anticipated to be generated from our operations, will be sufficient to satisfy our estimated working capital, planned capital expenditure requirements, payments of debt, and any future cash dividends declared by our Board of Directors or share repurchases through at least the next 12 months and the foreseeable future.

In periods when our sales are growing, higher sales to customers will result in increased trade receivables, and inventories will generally increase as we build products for future sales. This may result in lower cash generated from operations. Conversely, in periods when our sales are declining, our trade accounts receivable and inventory balances will generally decrease, resulting in increased cash from operations.

Net cash provided by operating activities was $529 million for 2022 and resulted from net income of $333 million, which included non-cash charges of $353 million, offset by a net increase in working capital of $157 million. The net increase in working capital was primarily due to increases in inventory of $236 million, as a result of increased business levels, and a decrease of $31 million in accrued compensation, resulting from the payment of variable compensation. These increases in working capital were partially offset by a decrease in other current and non-current assets of $28 million, an increase in accounts payable of $61 million and an increase in income taxes payable of $19 million.

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Net cash provided by operating activities was $640 million for 2021 and resulted from net income of $551 million, which included non-cash net charges of $161 million, offset by an increase in working capital of $72 million. The increase in working capital consisted of an increase in inventories of $92 million and an increase in trade accounts receivable of $53 million, both of which were the result of increased business levels, offset by an increase in accounts payable of $56 million from increased business levels and an increase in current and non-current accrued compensation of $17 million.

Net cash used in investing activities was $4.6 billion for 2022, primarily due to $4.5 billion used for the Atotech Acquisition, net of cash and cash equivalents acquired, and $164 million in capital expenditures, partially offset by $76 million in net maturities of investments.

Net cash used in investing activities was $205 million for 2021, reflecting the purchase of Photon Control for $268 million, net of cash and cash equivalents acquired, and $87 million in capital expenditures, primarily for production-related equipment, offset by the net sales of short-term investments of $150 million.

Net cash provided by financing activities was $4.0 billion for 2022, primarily due to $5.0 billion in net proceeds from our New Term Loan Facility offset by $962 million of payments on borrowings, primarily related to payment of the Prior Term Loan Facility (as defined below), a $100 million optional pre-payment and $22 million regularly scheduled payment on the New Term Loan Facility and $52 million in dividend payments.

Net cash used in financing activities was $65 million for 2021, primarily due to dividend payments of $47 million and net payments of short and long-term borrowings of $15 million.

For the year ended December 31, 2022, we paid cash dividends of $52 million in the aggregate or $0.88 per share. For the year ended December 31, 2021, we paid cash dividends of $47 million in the aggregate or $0.86 per share. Future dividend declarations, if any, as well as the record and payment dates for such dividends, are subject to the final determination of our Board of Directors. Holders of our common stock are entitled to receive dividends when and if they are declared by our Board of Directors. Under the terms of our New Term Loan Facility and New Revolving Facility, each as defined and described further below, we may be restricted from paying dividends under certain circumstances.

On February 6, 2023, our Board of Directors declared a quarterly cash dividend of $0.22 per share that was paid on March 10, 2023 to shareholders of record as of February 27, 2023.

Atotech Acquisition

On August 17, 2022, we completed the Atotech Acquisition. The total net purchase price, including cash consideration, net of cash acquired, value of MKS shares issued, repayment of Atotech debt and settlement of share-based awards totaled $5.7 billion. We funded the payment of the aggregate cash consideration with a combination of cash on hand and the proceeds from the New Term Loan Facility, as defined below. As a result of the Atotech Acquisition, we issued an aggregate of 10.7 million shares of our common stock to the former Atotech shareholders. Additional information regarding the funding of the Atotech Acquisition, the entry into the New Term Loan Facility, and the New Revolving Facility and the replacement of the Prior Term Loan Facility and the Prior ABL Credit Facility, is discussed under “Recent Events - Atotech Acquisition” above and in Note 14 to the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements.

In connection with the completion of the Atotech Acquisition, we entered into a credit agreement with JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., as administrative agent and collateral agent, Barclays Bank PLC, and the lenders from time to time party thereto (the “New Credit Agreement”). The New Credit Agreement provides for (i) a senior secured term loan facility (the “New Term Loan Facility”) comprised of three tranches: a USD 1 billion loan (the “USD Tranche A”), a USD 3.6 billion loan (the “USD Tranche B”) and a EUR 600 million loan (the “Euro Tranche B”), each of which were borrowed in full on the Effective Date, and (ii) a senior secured revolving credit facility of USD 500 million (the “New Revolving Facility” and, together with the New Term Loan Facility, the “New Credit Facilities”), with the commitments under each of the foregoing facilities subject to increase from time to time subject to certain conditions.

Borrowings under the New Credit Facilities bear interest at a rate per annum equal to, at our option, any of the following, plus, in each case, an applicable margin: (a) with respect to the USD Tranche A, the USD Tranche B and the New Revolving Facility, (x) a base rate determined by reference to the highest of (1) the federal funds effective rate plus 0.50%, (2) the prime rate quoted in The Wall Street Journal, or (3) a forward-looking term rate based on the secured overnight financing rate (“Term SOFR”) (plus an applicable credit spread adjustment) for an interest period of one month, plus 1.00%; and (y) a Term SOFR rate (plus an applicable credit spread adjustment) for the interest period relevant to such borrowing, subject to a rate floor of (I) with respect to the USD Tranche B, 0.50% and (II) with respect to the USD Tranche A and the New Revolving Facility, 0.0%; and (b) with respect to the Euro Tranche B, a EURIBOR rate determined by reference to the costs of funds for Euro deposits for the interest period relevant to such borrowing adjusted for certain additional costs, subject to a EURIBOR rate floor of 0.0%. The USD Tranche A was issued with original issue discount of 0.25% of the principal amount thereof. The USD Tranche B and the Euro Tranche B were issued with original issue discount of 2.00% of the principal amount thereof. The applicable margin for

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borrowings under the USD Tranche A is 1.50% with respect to base rate borrowings and 2.50% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings. The applicable margin for borrowings under the USD Tranche B is 1.75% with respect to base rate borrowings and 2.75% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings. The applicable margin for borrowings under the Euro Tranche B is 3.00%. The initial applicable margin for borrowings under the New Revolving Facility is 1.50% with respect to base rate borrowings and 2.50% with respect to Term SOFR borrowings. Commencing with the delivery of financial statements with respect to the first quarter ending after the closing of the New Credit Agreement, the applicable margin for borrowings under the New Revolving Facility is subject to adjustment each fiscal quarter, based on our first lien net leverage ratio as of the end of the preceding quarter.

In addition to paying interest on outstanding principal under the New Credit Facilities, we are required to pay a commitment fee in respect of the unutilized commitments under the New Revolving Facility. The initial commitment fee is 0.375% per annum. Commencing with the delivery of financial statements with respect to the first quarter ending after the closing of the New Credit Agreement, the commitment fee is subject to downward adjustment based on our first lien net leverage ratio as of the end of the preceding quarter. We must also pay customary letter of credit fees and agency fees.

We incurred $242 million of deferred financing fees and original issue discount fees related to the term loans under the New Term Loan Facility, which are included in long-term debt in the accompanying consolidated balance sheets and are being amortized to interest expense over the estimated life of the term loans using the effective interest method. As of December 31, 2022, the remaining balance of deferred financing fees and original issue discount of the New Term Loan Facility was $195 million. A portion of the deferred financing fees and original issue discount has been accelerated in connection with the debt prepayment and extinguishment of the Prior Term Loan Facility (as defined below).

Under the New Credit Agreement, we are required to prepay outstanding term loans, subject to certain exceptions, with portions of our annual excess cash flow as well as with the net cash proceeds of certain of our asset sales, certain casualty and condemnation events and the incurrences or issuances of certain debt.

If at any time the aggregate amount of outstanding loans, unreimbursed letter of credit drawings and undrawn letters of credit under the New Revolving Facility exceeds the aggregate commitments under the New Revolving Facility, we are required to repay outstanding loans and/or cash collateralize letters of credit, with no reduction of the commitment amount.

We may voluntarily prepay outstanding loans under the New Credit Facilities from time to time, subject to certain conditions, without premium or penalty other than customary “breakage” costs with respect to Term SOFR or EURIBOR loans; provided, however, that subject to certain exceptions, if on or prior to the date that is twelve months after the closing date of the New Term Loan Facility, we prepay any loans under the USD Tranche B or the Euro Tranche B in connection with a repricing transaction, we must pay a prepayment premium of 1.00% of the aggregate principal amount of the loans so prepaid. Additionally, we may voluntarily reduce the unutilized portion of the commitment amount under the New Revolving Facility.

We are required to make scheduled quarterly payments each equal to 1.25% of the original principal amount of the USD Tranche A (increasing to 1.875% in years 3 and 4 and 2.50% in year 5) and 0.25% of the original principal amount of the USD Tranche B and the Euro Tranche B, beginning with the fiscal quarter ending December 31, 2022, with the balance due thereunder on the fifth anniversary of the closing date in the case of the USD Tranche A and the seventh anniversary of the closing date in the case of the USD Tranche B and the Euro Tranche B.

There is no scheduled amortization under the New Revolving Facility. Any principal amount outstanding under the New Revolving Facility is due and payable in full on the fifth anniversary of the closing date.

We incurred $7 million of costs in connection with the New Revolving Facility, which were capitalized and included in other assets in the accompanying consolidated balance sheet and are being amortized to interest expense over the estimated life of four years. As a result of our Prior ABL Credit Facility (as defined below) being terminated concurrently with our entry into the New Revolving Facility, we wrote off an immaterial amount of previously capitalized debt issuance costs.

All obligations under the New Credit Facilities are guaranteed by certain of our wholly-owned domestic subsidiaries and are required to be guaranteed by certain of our future wholly-owned domestic subsidiaries and are secured by substantially all of our assets and the assets of such subsidiaries, subject to certain exceptions and exclusions.

Under the New Credit Agreement, we have the ability to incur additional incremental debt facilities in an amount up to (x) the greater of (1) $1.01 billion and (2) 75% of consolidated EBITDA, plus (y) an amount equal to the sum of all voluntary prepayments of term loans under the New Term Loan Facility, plus (z) an additional unlimited amount subject to pro forma compliance with certain leverage ratio tests (based on the security and priority of such incremental debt).

Under the USD Tranche A and the New Revolving Facility, so long as any USD Tranche A loans (or commitments in respect thereof) are outstanding as of the end of any fiscal quarter, we may not allow our total net leverage ratio as of the end of such fiscal quarter to be greater than 5.50 to 1.00, with an annual step-down of 0.25:1.00 and subject to a step-up of 0.50:1.00 for the four full fiscal quarter period following any material acquisition, not to exceed 5.50 to 1.00.

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In addition, in the event there are no loans outstanding under the USD Tranche A, as of the end of any fiscal quarter of ours when the aggregate amount of loans outstanding under the New Revolving Facility (net of (a) all letters of credit (whether cash collateralized or not) and (b) unrestricted cash of ours and our restricted subsidiaries) exceeds 35% of the aggregate amount of all commitments under the New Revolving Facility in; effect as of such date, we may not allow our first lien net leverage ratio as of the end of each such fiscal quarter to be greater than 6.00 to 1.00.

The USD Tranche B and the Euro Tranche B are not subject to financial maintenance covenants.

The New Credit Agreement contains a number of negative covenants that, among other things and subject to certain exceptions, restrict our ability and each of our subsidiaries to incur additional indebtedness; pay dividends on our capital stock or redeem, repurchase or retire our capital stock or our subordinated indebtedness; make investments, loans and acquisitions; create restrictions on the payment of dividends or other amounts to us from our restricted subsidiaries or restrictions on the ability of our restricted subsidiaries to incur liens; engage in transactions with our affiliates; sell assets, including capital stock of our subsidiaries; materially alter the business it conducts; consolidate or merge; incur liens; and engage in sale-leaseback transactions.

The New Credit Agreement also contains customary representations and warranties, affirmative covenants and provisions relating to events of default. If an event of default occurs, the lenders under the New Credit Facilities will be entitled to take various actions, including the acceleration of amounts due under the New Credit Facilities and all actions permitted to be taken by a secured creditor. At December 31, 2022, we were in compliance with all covenants under the New Credit Agreement.

The proceeds of the New Term Loan Facility were used on the Effective Date, among other things, to fund a portion of the consideration payable in connection with the Atotech Acquisition and to refinance the Prior Term Loan Facility, the Prior ABL Credit Facility and certain indebtedness of Atotech. We also paid certain customary fees and expenses of JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A., Barclays Bank PLC, BofA Securities Inc., Citigroup Global Markets Inc., HSBC Securities (USA) Inc. and Mizuho Bank, Ltd. in their respective capacities as lead arrangers and bookrunners in connection with the New Credit Facilities.

On the Effective Date, in connection with the entry into the New Credit Agreement described above, we terminated and prepaid the prior term loan credit facility under that certain Term Loan Credit Agreement, dated as of April 29, 2016, by and among us, Barclays Bank PLC and the other financial institutions from time to time party thereto (as amended, the “Prior Term Loan Credit Agreement” and the term loan credit facility thereunder, the “Prior Term Loan Facility”) and terminated the prior revolving credit facility under that certain ABL Credit Agreement, dated as of February 1, 2019, by and among the us, Barclays Bank PLC and the other financial institutions from time to time party thereto (as amended, the “Prior ABL Credit Agreement” and the revolving credit facility thereunder, the “Prior ABL Credit Facility”). At the time of termination, there were approximately $820 million in borrowings outstanding under the Prior Term Loan Facility that were prepaid and no borrowings outstanding under the Prior ABL Credit Facility. We have determined the termination to be a full extinguishment of debt and have written off to expense the immaterial remaining balance of deferred finance costs and debt issuance costs related to the Prior Term Loan Facility and Prior ABL Credit Facility.

As of December 31, 2022, the outstanding principal amount of the New Term Loan Facility was $5.1 billion and the weighted average interest rate was 6.8%. As of December 31, 2022, there were no borrowings under the New Revolving Facility.

Lines of Credit and Borrowing Arrangements

Certain of our Japanese subsidiaries have lines of credit and a financing facility with various financial institutions, many of which generally expire and are renewed at three-month intervals, with the remaining having no expiration date. The lines of credit and financing facility provided for aggregate borrowings as of December 31, 2022 and December 31, 2021 of up to an equivalent of $27 million and $29 million, respectively. There were no borrowings outstanding under these arrangements at December 31, 2022 or December 31, 2021.

Derivatives

We enter into derivative instruments for risk management purposes only, including derivatives designated as hedging instruments and those utilized as economic hedges. We operate internationally, and in the normal course of business, are exposed to fluctuations in interest rates and foreign exchange rates. These fluctuations can increase the costs of financing, investing and operating the business. We have used derivative instruments, such as foreign exchange forward contracts and options, to manage certain foreign currency exposure, and interest rate swaps and caps to manage interest rate exposure.

By nature, all financial instruments involve market and credit risks. We enter into derivative instruments with major investment grade financial institutions and no collateral is required. We have policies to monitor the credit risk of these counterparties. While there can be no assurance, we do not anticipate any material non-performance by any of these counterparties.

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Interest Rate Swap and Interest Rate Cap Agreements

We have various interest rate swap agreements, as described further in Note 8 to the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements, that exchange the variable Term SOFR rate to a fixed rate in order to manage the exposure to interest rate fluctuations associated with the variable Term SOFR rate paid on the outstanding balance of the New Term Loan Facility. We acquired USD London Interbank Offered Rate (“LIBOR”) interest rate cap agreements as a result of the Atotech Acquisition and we are utilizing these agreements to offset the variable Term SOFR rate on our New Term Loan Facility. Our USD LIBOR-based swaps and USD LIBOR-based interest rate caps will convert to Term SOFR after LIBOR's termination in June 2023, according to the terms of each instrument.

The interest rate swaps and caps are recorded at fair value on the balance sheet and changes in the fair value are recognized in Accumulated Other Comprehensive Income. To the extent that these arrangements are no longer an effective hedge, any ineffectiveness measured in the hedging relationships is recorded immediately in earnings in the period it occurs. The fair value of the interest rate swaps and caps is classified in other assets or non-current liabilities, accordingly, in the consolidated balance sheet.

Foreign Exchange Contracts

We hedge a portion of our forecasted foreign currency denominated intercompany sales of inventory, over a maximum period of eighteen months, using foreign exchange forward contracts accounted for as cash-flow hedges related to British, Euro, Japanese, South Korean and Taiwanese currencies. To the extent these derivatives are effective in offsetting the variability of the hedged cash flows, and otherwise meet the hedge accounting criteria, changes in the derivatives’ fair value are not included in current earnings but are included in accumulated other comprehensive income in stockholders’ equity. These changes in fair value will subsequently be reclassified into earnings, as applicable, when the forecasted transaction occurs. To the extent that a previously designated hedging transaction is no longer an effective hedge, any ineffectiveness measured in the hedging relationship is recorded immediately in earnings in the period it occurs. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in the consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities. We do not enter into derivative instruments for trading or speculative purposes.

We also enter into foreign exchange forward contracts to hedge certain balance sheet amounts. To the extent the hedge accounting criteria is not met, the related foreign exchange forward contracts are considered as economic hedges and changes in the fair value of these contracts are recorded immediately in earnings in the period in which they occur. These include hedges that are used to reduce exchange rate risks arising from the change in fair value of certain foreign currency-denominated assets and liabilities (i.e., payables, receivables) and other economic hedges where the hedge accounting criteria were not met.

We had foreign exchange forward contracts with notional amounts totaling $702 million outstanding at December 31, 2022, of which $485 million was outstanding to exchange euro to U.S. dollars and $75 million was outstanding to exchange South Korean won to U.S. dollars. We had foreign exchange forward contracts with notional amounts totaling $241 million outstanding

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at December 31, 2021, of which $108 million was outstanding to exchange South Korean won to U.S. dollars and $60 million was outstanding to exchange Japanese yen to U.S. dollars.

As of December 31, 2022, the unrealized loss that will be reclassified from accumulated other comprehensive income to earnings over the next twelve months is immaterial. Gains and losses on foreign exchange forward contracts that qualify for hedge accounting are classified in cost of products in 2022 and 2021 and totaled a gain of $18 million and a loss of $2 million, respectively. There were no ineffective portions of the derivatives recorded in 2022 and 2021.

We hedge certain intercompany accounts receivable and intercompany loans with foreign exchange forward contracts. Typically, as these derivatives hedge existing amounts that are denominated in foreign currencies, the derivatives do not qualify for hedge accounting. Realized and unrealized gains and losses on foreign exchange forward contracts that do not qualify for hedge accounting are recognized immediately in earnings. The net foreign exchange gains or losses on these derivatives were immaterial in each of 2022 and 2021. Foreign currency gains or losses are classified in other expense, net. The cash flows resulting from foreign exchange forward contracts are classified in our consolidated statements of cash flows as part of cash flows from operating activities. We do not hold or issue derivative financial instruments for trading purposes.

Contractual Obligations

As of December 31, 2022, we are a party to purchase commitments for certain inventory components and other equipment and services used in our normal operations totaling approximately $795 million. The majority of these purchase commitments covered by these arrangements are for periods of less than one year.

In addition, we have various operating leases for real estate and non-real estate items. The non-real estate leases are mainly comprised of automobiles but also include office equipment and other lower-valued items. We also have a small number of finance leases for real estate.

Future payments related to operating and finance leases are as follows:

Contractual maturities of our debt obligations as of December 31, 2022 are as follows:

We have a number of defined benefit pension plans, which cover some of our employees outside the United States. In addition, we have certain pension assets and liabilities relating to our former employees in the United Kingdom. As of December 31, 2022, our estimated benefit payments over the next 10 years amount to $88 million. The majority of the benefit payments covered by these arrangements occurs after 2027.

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Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, or MD&A, describes principal factors affecting the results of our operations, financial condition, cash flows and liquidity, as well as our critical accounting policies and estimates that require significant judgment and thus have the most significant potential impact on our Consolidated Financial Statements, and is intended to better allow investors to view the Company from management’s perspective. This section focuses on material events and uncertainties known to management that are reasonably likely to cause reported financial information not to be necessarily indicative of our future operating results or of our future financial condition. This section provides an analysis of our financial results for the year ended December 31, 2021 compared to the year ended December 31, 2020. For the discussion and analysis covering the year ended December 31, 2020 compared to the year ended December 31, 2019, please refer to “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” in Part II, Item 7 of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2020, as filed with the SEC on February 23, 2021.

Overview

We are a global provider of instruments, systems, subsystems and process control solutions that measure, monitor, deliver, analyze, power and control critical parameters of advanced manufacturing processes to improve process performance and productivity for our customers. Our products are derived from our core competencies in pressure measurement and control, flow measurement and control, gas and vapor delivery, gas composition analysis, electronic control technology, reactive gas generation and delivery, power generation and delivery, vacuum technology, temperature sensing, lasers, photonics, optics, precision motion control, vibration control and laser-based manufacturing systems solutions. We also provide services relating to the maintenance and repair of our products, installation services and training. Our primary served markets include semiconductor, industrial technologies, life and health sciences and research and defense.

Recent Events

Acquisitions

On July 15, 2021, we completed our acquisition of Photon Control Inc. (“Photon Control” and such acquisition, the “Photon Control Acquisition”), pursuant to a definitive agreement. Photon Control designs, manufactures and distributes a wide range of optical sensors and systems to measure temperature and position used in semiconductor wafer fabrication. At the effective time of the Photon Control Acquisition, each share of Photon Control’s common stock issued and outstanding as of immediately prior to the effective time of the Photon Control Acquisition was converted into the right to receive 3.60 per share in cash, in Canadian dollars (“CAD”), without interest and subject to deduction for any required withholding tax. We paid to the former Photon Control securityholders aggregate consideration of CAD 379 million or $303 million, excluding related transaction fees and expenses. We funded the payment of the aggregate consideration with available cash on hand. Photon Control is included in our Light & Motion (“L&M”) segment.

The Photon Control Acquisition has helped us deliver on one of our long-term strategic objectives, which is to broaden our portfolio of key technologies to better serve our customers. The Photon Control Acquisition further advances our strategy to enhance our Surround the Chamber® offering by adding optical sensors for temperature control for critical etch and deposition applications in semiconductor wafer fabrication.

On July 1, 2021, we entered into a definitive agreement (as amended from time to time, the “Implementation Agreement”) to acquire Atotech, a leading process chemicals technology company and a market leader in advanced electroplating solutions. Pursuant to the Implementation Agreement, we agreed to pay $16.20 per share in cash and 0.0552 of a share of our common stock for each outstanding common share of Atotech. At the time of the announcement of the acquisition, the total value of the aggregate cash and stock consideration was approximately $5.1 billion. The final value of the consideration will be determined at the time of the closing of the acquisition, which is expected to occur in the first quarter of 2022, subject to the satisfaction of certain closing conditions, including receipt of regulatory approval from China and approval by the Royal Court of Jersey. Our obligations to complete the acquisition are not subject to any financing condition. We intend to fund the cash portion of the transaction with a combination of available cash on hand and committed term loan debt financing.  In connection with entering into the Implementation Agreement, we entered into (a) a commitment letter (the “Initial Commitment Letter”), dated as of July 1, 2021, with JPMorgan Chase Bank, N.A. and Barclays Bank PLC (collectively, the “Initial Commitment Parties”) and (b) joinders to the Initial Commitment Letter to add certain additional lender parties (the “Commitment Letter Joinders” and, together with the Initial Commitment Letter, the “Commitment Letter”) dated as of July 23, 2021, with the Initial Commitment Parties and the additional lenders party thereto  (collectively, the “Supplemental Commitment Parties” and, together with the Initial Commitment Parties, the “Commitment Parties”), pursuant to which, subject to the terms and conditions set forth therein, the Commitment Parties committed to provide (i) a senior

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secured term loan credit facility in an aggregate principal amount of $5.3 billion (the “New Term Loan Facility”) and (ii) a senior secured revolving credit facility with aggregate total commitments of $500 million (the “New Revolving Credit Facility”).  The New Term Loan Facility and New Revolving Credit Facility would refinance our existing term loan facility (the “Term Loan Facility”) and our existing asset-based revolving credit facility (the “ABL Facility”), respectively, and the New Term Loan Facility would be used to finance a portion of the acquisition and to refinance certain existing indebtedness of Atotech.

On October 22, 2021, we completed the syndication of the New Term Loan Facility, comprised of two tranches: a $4.7 billion loan at LIBOR plus 2.25%, a floor of 0.50% and 0.25% of original issue discount, and a Euro tranche of 0.5 billion Euro (“EUR”), or approximately $0.6 billion at EURIBOR plus 2.75%, a floor of 0.00% and 0.25% of original issue discount. Subsequent to the syndication, the $4.7 billion tranche is expected to be modified to reference a term rate based on SOFR (plus an applicable credit spread adjustment) as the benchmark rate.

The Commitment Parties’ obligations under the Commitment Letter and the closing and initial funding under the New Term Loan Facility are subject to certain customary conditions including, without limitation, the consummation of the acquisition of Atotech in accordance with the Implementation Agreement, the accuracy of specified representations and warranties of us and other customary closing conditions.

Segments and Markets

The Vacuum & Analysis (“V&A”) segment provides a broad range of instruments, components and subsystems which are derived from our core competencies in pressure measurement and control, flow measurement and control, gas and vapor delivery, gas composition analysis, electronic control technology, reactive gas generation and delivery, power generation and delivery, and vacuum technology.

The L&M segment provides a broad range of instruments, components and subsystems which are derived from our core competencies in lasers, photonics, optics, temperature sensing, precision motion control and vibration control.

The Equipment & Solutions (“E&S”) segment provides a range of products including laser-based systems for PCB manufacturing, which include flexible interconnect PCB processing systems and high-density interconnect solutions for rigid PCB manufacturing and substrate processing and MLCC test systems.

Semiconductor Market

A significant portion of our sales is derived from products sold to semiconductor capital equipment manufacturers and semiconductor device manufacturers. Our products are used in major semiconductor processing steps, such as depositing thin films of material onto silicon wafer substrates, etching, cleaning, lithography, metrology and inspection. The semiconductor industry continually faces new challenges as products become smaller, more powerful and highly mobile. Ultra-thin layers, smaller critical dimensions, new materials, 3D structures, and the ongoing need for higher yield and productivity drive the need for tighter process measurement and control, all of which MKS supports. We believe we are the broadest critical subsystem provider in the wafer fabrication equipment (“WFE”) ecosystem and address over 85% of the market.

Approximately 62% and 59% of our net revenues for 2021 and 2020, respectively, were from sales to semiconductor capital equipment manufacturers and semiconductor device manufacturers. We estimate global spending on WFE was approximately $80 billion in 2021 compared to approximately $56 billion in 2020, driven by increases in memory and logic and reflective of strong secular demand trends increasing semiconductor demand, such as robust data growth, 5G, Internet-Of-Things, artificial intelligence, and autonomous vehicles. We anticipate that the semiconductor market will continue to account for a substantial portion of our sales.

Net revenues in our semiconductor market increased by $439 million, or 32%, in 2021, compared to 2020, due to increases in net revenues in V&A and L&M, offset by decreases in net revenues in E&S. V&A net revenues in our semiconductor market increased $393 million due to broad-based increases in demand for V&A products. L&M net revenues in our semiconductor market increased $73 million, driven by demand for our photonics solutions in lithography, metrology and inspection, as well as contributions from our acquisition of Photon Control. These increases were offset by a decrease of $27 million in net revenues in E&S, resulting from the discontinuation of certain non-core products.

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The semiconductor capital equipment industry is subject to rapid demand shifts, which are difficult to predict, and we cannot be certain as to the timing or extent of future demand or any future weakness in the semiconductor capital equipment industry.

In 2021, we experienced supply chain disruptions, component shortages and significant price increases for certain components in our semiconductor market due to global capacity constraints compounded by increasing global demand as well as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. We expect these disruptions and shortages to continue in the near-term while our suppliers adjust to significant increases in demand and respond to the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, all of which may negatively impact net revenues from our semiconductor market for the three months ending March 31, 2022.

Advanced Markets

In addition to the semiconductor market, our products are used in the industrial technologies, life and health sciences, research and defense markets.

Industrial Technologies

Industrial technologies encompasses a wide range of diverse applications, including advanced electronics manufacturing comprising flexible and rigid printed circuit board (“PCB”) processing/fabrication, electronic component manufacturing, glass coating and electronic thin films. Electronic thin films are a primary component of numerous electronic products including flat panel displays, light emitting diodes, solar cells and data storage media. Other applications include laser marking, measurement and scribing, natural gas and oil production and environmental monitoring.

Life and Health Sciences

Our products for life and health sciences are used in a diverse array of applications, including bioimaging, medical instrument sterilization, medical device manufacturing, analytical, diagnostic and surgical instrumentation, consumable medical supply manufacturing and pharmaceutical production.

Research and Defense

Our products for research and defense are sold to government, university and industrial laboratories for applications involving research and development in materials science, physical chemistry, photonics, optics and electronics materials. Our products are also sold for monitoring and defense applications including surveillance, imaging and infrastructure protection.

Approximately 38% and 41% of our net revenues in the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020, respectively, were from advanced markets.

Net revenues from customers in our advanced markets increased by $180 million, or 19%, in 2021, compared to 2020, with E&S, V&A and L&M recording net revenue increases of $67 million, $62 million and $51 million, respectively. Net revenues in our industrial technologies market increased $164 million, primarily in advanced electronics manufacturing applications such as PCB processing/fabrication and electronic component manufacturing. Net revenues in our research and defense market increased $11 million, due to a rebound in demand following university and research lab closures in the first half of 2020 caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.

International Markets

A significant portion of our net revenues is from sales to customers in international markets. International net revenues accounted for approximately 57% and 55% of our total net revenues in 2021 and 2020, respectively. A significant portion of our international net revenues was from China, Israel, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. Long-lived assets located outside of the United States accounted for approximately 25% and 28% of our total long-lived assets in 2021 and 2020, respectively. Long-lived assets include, property, plant and equipment, net, right-of-use assets, and certain other assets and exclude goodwill, intangible assets and long-term tax-related accounts.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

The MD&A discusses our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States (“U.S. GAAP”). The preparation of these financial statements requires

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management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. On an on-going basis, we evaluate our estimates and judgments, including those related to revenue recognition, inventory, warranty costs, pension plan valuations, stock-based compensation expense, intangible assets, goodwill and other long-lived assets and income taxes. We base our estimates and judgments on historical experience and on various other factors that are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates under different assumptions or conditions.

We believe the following critical accounting policies affect the most significant judgments, assumptions and estimates we use in preparing our consolidated financial statements:

Revenue Recognition. We account for revenue using Accounting Standards Codification 606 (“ASC 606”). We apply ASC 606 using the following steps:

Revenue under ASC 606 is recognized when or as obligations under the terms of a contract with our customer has been satisfied and control has transferred to the customer. The majority of our performance obligations, and associated revenue, are transferred to customers at a point in time, generally upon shipment of a product to the customer or receipt of the product by the customer and without significant judgments. Installation services are not significant and are usually completed in a short period of time (normally less than two weeks) and therefore, recorded at a point in time when the installation services are completed, rather than over time as they are not material. Extended warranty, service contracts, and repair services, which are transferred to the customer over time, are recorded as revenue as the services are performed. For repair services, we make an accrual at each quarter end based upon historical repair times within our product groups to record revenue based upon the estimated number of days completed to date, which is consistent with ratable recognition. Customized products with no alternative future use to us, and that have an enforceable right to payment for performance completed to date, are also recorded over time. We consider this to be a faithful depiction of the transfer to the customer of revenue over time as the work is performed or service is delivered, ratably over time. The adjustments for custom products were not material for 2021 or 2020.

Revenue is measured as the amount of consideration we expect to receive in exchange for transferring goods or providing services. Performance obligations promised in a contract are identified based on the products or services that will be transferred to the customer that are both capable of being distinct, whereby the customer can benefit from the product or service either on its own or together with other resources that are readily available from third parties or from us, and are distinct in the context of the contract, whereby the transfer of the product or service is separately identifiable from other promises in the contract. Sales, value add, and other taxes we collect concurrent with revenue-producing activities are excluded from revenue. Our normal payment terms are 30 to 60 days but vary by the type and location of our customers and the products or services offered. The time between invoicing and when payment is due is not significant. For certain products and services and customer types, we require payment before the products or services are delivered to, or performed for, the customer. None of our contracts as of December 31, 2021 contained a significant financing component.

We periodically enter into contracts with our customers in which a customer may purchase a combination of goods and or services, such as products with installation services or extended warranties. These contracts include multiple promises that we evaluate to determine if the promises are separate performance obligations. Once we determine the performance obligations, we then determine the transaction price, which includes estimating the amount of variable consideration to be included in the transaction price, if any. To the extent the transaction price includes variable consideration, we estimate the amount of variable consideration that should be included in the transaction price utilizing either the expected value method or the most likely amount method depending on the method we expect to better predict the amount of consideration to which it will be entitled. There are no constraints on the variable consideration recorded. We then allocate the transaction price to each performance obligation in the contract based on a relative stand-alone selling price charged separately to customers or using an expected cost-plus margin method. The corresponding revenues are recognized when or as the related performance obligations are satisfied, which are noted above. The impact of variable consideration has been immaterial.

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We sometimes sell separately priced service contracts and extended warranty contracts related to certain of our products, especially our laser products. The separately priced contracts generally range from 12 to 60 months. We normally receive payment at the inception of the contract or beginning of an annual period and recognize revenue over the term of the agreement in proportion to the costs expected to be incurred in satisfying the obligations under the contract.

We monitor and track the amount of product returns, provide for sales return allowances and reduce revenue at the time of shipment for the estimated amount of such future returns, based on historical experience. While product returns have historically been within our expectations and the provisions established, there is no assurance that we will continue to experience the same return rates that we have in the past. Any significant increase in product return rates could have a material adverse impact on our operating results for the period or periods in which such returns materialize.

While we maintain a credit approval process, significant judgments are made by management in connection with assessing our customers’ ability to pay at the time of shipment. Despite this assessment, from time to time, our customers are unable to meet their payment obligations. We continuously monitor our customers’ credit worthiness and use our judgment in establishing a provision for estimated credit losses based upon our historical experience and any specific customer collection issues that we have identified. While such credit losses have historically been within our expectations and the provisions established, there is no assurance that we will continue to experience the same credit loss rates that we have in the past. A significant change in the liquidity or financial position of our customers could have a material adverse impact on the collectability of accounts receivable and our future operating results. Bad debt expense was immaterial in 2021 and 2020.

Inventory. We value our inventory at the lower of cost (first-in, first-out method) or market. We regularly review inventory quantities on hand and record a provision to write-down excess and obsolete inventory to its estimated net realizable value, if less than cost, based primarily on our estimated forecast of product demand. Once our inventory value is written-down and a new cost basis has been established, the inventory value is not increased due to demand increases. Demand for our products can fluctuate significantly. A significant increase in the demand for our products could result in a short-term increase in the cost of inventory purchases as a result of supply shortages or a decrease in the cost of inventory purchases as a result of volume discounts, while a significant decrease in demand could result in an increase in the charges for excess inventory quantities on hand. In addition, our industry is subject to technological change, new product development and product technological obsolescence that could result in an increase in the amount of obsolete inventory quantities on hand. Therefore, any significant unanticipated changes in demand or technological developments could have a significant impact on the value of our inventory and our reported operating results. Excess and obsolete expense was $16 million and $25 million for 2021 and 2020, respectively.

Warranty Costs. We provide for the estimated costs to fulfill customer warranty obligations upon the recognition of the related revenue. We provide warranty coverage for our products for periods ranging from 12 to 36 months, with the majority of our products for periods ranging from 12 to 24 months. Short-term accrued warranty obligations, which expire within one year, are included in other current liabilities and long-term accrued warranty obligations are included in other liabilities in the consolidated balance sheets. We estimate the anticipated costs of repairing our products under such warranties based on the historical costs of the repairs and any known specific product issues. The assumptions we use to estimate warranty accruals are re-evaluated periodically in light of actual experience and, when appropriate, the accruals are adjusted. Our determination of the appropriate level of warranty accrual is based upon estimates. Should product failure rates differ from our estimates, actual costs could vary significantly from our expectations. Defective products will be either repaired or replaced, generally at our option, upon meeting certain criteria.

Pension Plans. Several of our non-U.S. subsidiaries have defined benefit pension plans covering employees of those subsidiaries. Some of the plans are unfunded, as permitted under the plans and applicable laws. For financial reporting purposes, we obtained actuarial reports supporting the calculation of net periodic pension costs that used a number of actuarial assumptions, including a discount rate for plan obligations, an assumed rate of return on pension plan assets and an assumed rate of compensation increase for employees covered by the various plans. We reviewed these actuarial assumptions and concluded they were reasonable based upon our judgment, considering known trends and uncertainties. Actual results that differ from these assumptions would impact future expense recognition and the cash funding requirements of our pension plans.

Stock-Based Compensation Expense. We record compensation expense for all stock-based compensation awards to employees and directors based upon the estimated fair market value of the underlying instrument. Accordingly, stock-based compensation cost is measured at the grant date, based upon the fair value of the award.

We typically issue restricted stock units (“RSUs”) as stock-based compensation. We also provide certain employees the opportunity to purchase our shares through an Employee Stock Purchase Plan (“ESPP”). For RSUs, the fair value is the closing

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market price of the stock on the date of grant. We estimate the fair value of shares issued under our ESPP using the Black-Scholes pricing model, which incorporates a number of complex and subjective variables, including expected stock price volatility over the term of the awards, expected life, risk free interest rate and expected dividends. Management determined that blended volatility, a combination of historical and implied volatility, is more reflective of market conditions and a better indicator of expected volatility than historical or implied volatility alone.

Certain RSUs involve stock to be issued upon the achievement of performance conditions (“performance shares”) under our stock incentive plan. Such performance shares become available, subject to time-based vesting conditions if, and to the extent that, financial performance criteria for the applicable period are achieved. Accordingly, the number of performance shares earned will vary based on the level of achievement of financial performance objectives for the applicable period. Until such time that our financial performance can ultimately be determined, each quarter we estimate the number of performance shares to be earned based on an evaluation of the probability of achieving the financial performance objectives. Such estimates are revised, if necessary, in subsequent periods when the underlying factors change our evaluation of the probability of achieving the financial performance objectives. Accordingly, share-based compensation expense associated with performance shares may differ significantly from the amount recorded in the current period.

The assumptions used in calculating the fair value of share-based compensation awards represents management’s best estimates, but these estimates involve inherent uncertainties and the application of management’s judgment. As a result, if factors change and we use different assumptions, our stock-based compensation expense could be materially different in the future.

Intangible Assets, Goodwill and Other Long-Lived Assets.  As a result of our acquisitions, we have identified intangible assets and generated significant goodwill. Definite-lived intangible assets are valued based on estimates of future cash flows and amortized over their estimated useful life. Determining fair value requires the exercise of significant judgment, including assumptions about appropriate discount rates as well as forecasted revenue, gross profit and operating margins.

Goodwill and indefinite-lived intangible assets are subject to annual impairment testing as well as testing upon the occurrence of any event that indicates a potential impairment. Intangible assets and other long-lived assets are also subject to an impairment test if there is an indicator of impairment. If our expectations of future results and cash flows are significantly diminished, intangible assets and goodwill may be impaired and the resulting charge to operations may be material. When we determine that the carrying value of intangibles or other long-lived assets may not be recoverable based upon the existence of one or more indicators of impairment, we use the projected undiscounted cash flow method to determine whether an impairment exists, and then measure the impairment using discounted cash flows. To measure impairment for goodwill, we compare the fair value of our reporting units by measuring discounted cash flows to the book value of the reporting units. Goodwill would be impaired if the resulting implied fair value was less than the recorded book value of the goodwill.

The estimation of useful lives and expected cash flows require us to make significant judgments regarding future periods that are subject to some factors outside of our control. Changes in these estimates can result in significant revisions to the carrying value of these assets and may result in material charges to the results of operations.

We have elected to perform our annual goodwill impairment test as of October 31 of each year, or more often if events or circumstances indicate that there may be impairment. Goodwill is the amount by which the cost of acquired net assets exceeded the fair value of those net assets on the date of acquisition. We allocate goodwill to reporting units at the time of acquisition or when there is a change in the reporting structure and base that allocation on which reporting units will benefit from the acquired assets and liabilities. Reporting units are defined as operating segments or one level below an operating segment, referred to as a component. The estimated fair value of our reporting units was based on discounted cash flow models derived from internal earnings and internal and external market forecasts. Determining fair value requires the exercise of significant judgment, including assumptions about appropriate discount and perpetual growth rates, as well as forecasted revenue growth rates and gross profit and operating margins. Discount rates are based on a weighted average cost of capital (“WACC”), which represents the average rate a business must pay its providers of debt and equity. The WACC used to test goodwill is derived from a group of comparable companies. Assumptions in estimating future cash flows are subject to a high degree of judgment and complexity. We make every effort to forecast these future cash flows as accurately as possible with the information available at the time the forecast is developed.

In performing our annual goodwill impairment test, we are permitted to first assess qualitative factors to determine whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of our reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, including goodwill. In performing the qualitative assessment, we consider certain events and circumstances specific to the reporting unit and to the entity as a whole, such as macroeconomic conditions, industry and market considerations, overall financial performance and cost factors when evaluating whether it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying amount. We are also permitted to bypass the qualitative assessment and proceed directly to the quantitative test. If we choose to

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undertake the qualitative assessment and we conclude that it is more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying amount, we would then proceed to the quantitative impairment test. In the quantitative assessment, we compare the fair value of the reporting unit to its carrying amount, which includes goodwill. If the fair value exceeds the carrying value, no impairment loss exists. If the fair value is less than the carrying amount, a goodwill impairment loss is measured and recorded.

As of October 31, 2021, we performed our annual impairment assessment of goodwill using a qualitative assessment for all of our reporting units. We determined that it was more likely than not that the fair values were more than the carrying values for each of the reporting units.

We will continue to monitor and evaluate the carrying value of goodwill. If market and economic conditions or business performance deteriorate, this could increase the likelihood of us recording an impairment charge.

Income Taxes. We evaluate the realizability of our net deferred tax assets and assess the need for a valuation allowance on a quarterly basis. The future benefit to be derived from our deferred tax assets is dependent upon our ability to generate sufficient future taxable income in each jurisdiction of the right type to realize the assets. We record a valuation allowance to reduce our net deferred tax assets to the amount that is expected to be realized. To the extent we establish a valuation allowance an expense is recorded within the provision for income taxes line in the consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income.

Accounting for income taxes requires a two-step approach to recognize and measure uncertain tax positions. The first step is to evaluate the tax position for recognition by determining if, based on the technical merits, it is more likely than not that the position will be sustained upon audit, including resolutions of related appeals or litigation processes, if any. The second step is to measure the tax benefit as the largest amount that is more than 50% likely of being realized upon ultimate settlement. We re-evaluate these uncertain tax positions on a quarterly basis. This evaluation is based on factors including, but not limited to, changes in facts or circumstances, changes in tax law, effectively settled issues under audit and new audit activity. Any change in these factors could result in the recognition of a tax benefit or an additional charge to the tax provision.

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Results of Operations

The following table sets forth, for the periods indicated, the percentage of total net revenues of certain line items included in our consolidated statements of operations and comprehensive income data: