COSTCO WHOLESALE CORP /NEW (COST)

Item 7—Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Conditions and Results of Operations (amounts in millions, except per share, share, membership fee, and warehouse count data)

Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (MD&A) is intended to promote understanding of the results of operations and financial condition. MD&A is provided as a supplement to, and should be read in conjunction with, our consolidated financial statements and the accompanying Notes to Financial Statements (Part II, Item 8 of this Form 10-K). This section generally discusses the results of operations for 2024 compared to 2023. For discussion related to the results of operations and changes in financial condition for 2023 compared to 2022 refer to Part II, Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our fiscal year 2023 Form 10-K, which was filed with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) on October 11, 2023.

Overview

We believe that the most important driver of our profitability is increasing net sales, particularly comparable sales. Net sales includes our core merchandise categories (foods and sundries, non-foods, and fresh foods), warehouse ancillary (gasoline, pharmacy, optical, food court, hearing aids, and tire installation) and other businesses (e-commerce, business centers, travel and other). E-commerce and business center sales are allocated to the appropriate merchandise categories in the Net Sales discussion. Comparable sales is defined as net sales from warehouses open for more than one year, including remodels, relocations and expansions, and sales related to e-commerce sites operating for more than one year. The measure is intended as supplemental information and is not a substitute for net sales presented in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (U.S. GAAP) and should be reviewed in conjunction with results reported in accordance with U.S. GAAP. Comparable sales growth is achieved through increasing shopping frequency from new and existing members and the amount they spend on each visit (average ticket). Sales comparisons can also be particularly influenced by certain factors that are beyond our control: fluctuations in currency exchange rates (with respect to our international operations) and inflation or deflation in the cost of gasoline and associated competitive conditions. The higher our comparable sales exclusive of these items, the more we can leverage our SG&A expenses, reducing them as a percentage of sales and enhancing profitability. Generating comparable sales growth is foremost a question of making available the right merchandise at the right prices, a skill that we believe we have repeatedly demonstrated over the long-term. Another substantial factor in net sales growth is the health of the economies in which we do business, including the effects of inflation or deflation, especially the United States. Net sales growth and gross margins are also impacted by our competition, which is vigorous and widespread, across a wide range of global, national and regional wholesalers and retailers, including those with e-commerce operations. While we cannot control or reliably predict general economic health or changes in competition, we believe that we have been successful historically in adapting our business to these changes, such as through adjustments to our pricing and merchandise mix, including increasing the penetration of our private-label items, and through online offerings.

Our philosophy is to provide our members with quality goods and services at competitive prices. We do not focus in the short-term on maximizing prices charged, but instead seek to maintain what we believe is a perception among our members of our “pricing authority” – consistently providing the most competitive values. Our net sales and gross margin are influenced in part by our merchandising and pricing strategies in response to cost increases. Those strategies can include, but are not limited to, working with our suppliers to share in absorbing cost increases, earlier-than-usual purchasing and in greater volumes, as well as passing cost increases on to our members. Our investments in merchandise pricing may include reducing prices on merchandise to drive sales or meet competition and holding prices steady despite cost increases instead of passing the increases on to our members, negatively impacting gross margin and gross margin as a percentage of net sales (gross margin percentage) in the near term.

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We believe our gasoline business enhances traffic in our warehouses; it generally has a lower gross margin percentage and lower SG&A expense relative to our non-gasoline businesses. A higher penetration of gasoline sales will generally lower our gross margin percentage. Generally, rising gasoline prices benefit net sales growth which, given the higher sales base, negatively impacts our gross margin percentage but decreases our SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales. A decline in gasoline prices has the inverse effect.

Government actions in various countries relating to tariffs, particularly China and the United States, have affected the costs of some of our merchandise. The degree of our exposure is dependent on (among other things) the type of goods, rates imposed, and timing of the tariffs. Higher tariffs could adversely impact our results.

We also achieve net sales growth by opening new warehouses. As our warehouse base grows, available and desirable sites become more difficult to secure, and square footage growth becomes a comparatively less substantial component of growth. Negative aspects of such growth include lower initial operating profitability relative to existing warehouses and cannibalization of sales at existing warehouses when openings occur in existing markets. Our rate of square footage growth is generally higher in foreign markets, due to the smaller base in those markets, and we expect that to continue. Our e-commerce business, domestically and internationally, has a lower gross-margin percentage than our warehouse operations.

The membership format is an integral part of our business and profitability. This format is designed to reinforce member loyalty and provide continuing fee revenue. The extent to which we achieve growth in our membership base, increase the penetration of Executive memberships, and sustain high renewal rates materially influences our profitability. Our paid-membership growth rate may be adversely impacted when warehouse openings occur in existing markets as compared to new markets. Our worldwide renewal rate may be adversely impacted by lower renewal rates in newer markets.

Our financial performance depends heavily on controlling costs. While we believe that we have achieved successes in this area, some significant costs are partially outside our control, particularly health care and utility expenses. With respect to the compensation of our employees, our philosophy is not to seek to minimize their wages and benefits. Rather, we believe that achieving our longer-term objectives of reducing employee turnover, increasing productivity and enhancing employee satisfaction requires maintaining compensation levels that are better than the industry average for much of our workforce. This may cause us, for example, to absorb costs that other employers might seek to pass through to their workforces. Because our business operates on very low margins, modest changes in various items in the consolidated statements of income, particularly merchandise costs and SG&A expenses, can have substantial impacts on net income.

Our operating model is generally the same across our U.S., Canadian, and Other International operating segments (see Note 11 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report). Certain operations in the Other International segment have relatively higher rates of square footage growth, lower wage and benefit costs as a percentage of sales, less or no direct membership warehouse competition, or lack e-commerce or business delivery.

In discussions of our consolidated operating results, we refer to the impact of changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar, which are differences between the foreign exchange rates we use to convert the financial results of our international operations from local currencies into U.S. dollars. This impact is calculated based on the difference between the current and prior period's exchange rates. The impact of changes in gasoline prices on net sales is calculated based on the difference between the current and prior period's average price per gallon sold. Results expressed excluding the impacts of foreign exchange and gasoline prices are intended as supplemental information and are not a substitute for net sales presented in accordance with U.S. GAAP and should be reviewed in conjunction with results reported in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

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Our fiscal year ends on the Sunday closest to August 31. References to 2024 and 2022 relate to the 52-week fiscal years ended September 1, 2024 and August 28, 2022. References to 2023 relate to the 53-week fiscal year ended September 3, 2023. Certain percentages presented are calculated using actual results prior to rounding.

Highlights for 2024 include:

•We opened 30 new warehouses, including one relocation: 23 net new in the U.S., one new in our Canadian segment, and five new in our Other International segment, compared to 26 new warehouses, including three relocations, in 2023;

•Net sales increased 5% to $249,625, driven by an increase in comparable sales and sales at new warehouses opened in 2023 and 2024, partially offset by one less week of sales in 2024;

•Membership fee revenue increased 5% to $4,828, driven by new member sign-ups and upgrades to Executive membership, partially offset by one less week of membership fee income in 2024;

•Gross margin percentage increased 35 basis points, driven primarily by warehouse ancillary and other businesses, largely e-commerce and gasoline, and the absence of charges related to the discontinuation of our charter shipping activities recorded in 2023;

•SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales increased six basis points, primarily due to warehouse operations and other businesses, which included the impact of wage increases in March and September 2023 and July 2024, partially offset by sales leverage and improved productivity;

•The effective tax rate in 2024 was 24.4%, compared to 25.9% in 2023;

•Net income increased 17% to $7,367, or $16.56 per diluted share compared to $6,292, or $14.16 per diluted share in 2023;

•We paid a special cash dividend of $15 per share in January 2024; and

•In April, the Board of Directors approved a 14% increase in the quarterly cash dividend.

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RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Net Sales

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(1)Comparable sales for 2024 were calculated using comparable retail weeks.

Net Sales

Net sales increased $11,915 or 5% during 2024. The improvement was attributable to an increase in comparable sales and sales at new warehouses opened in 2023 and 2024, partially offset by the impact of one less week of sales in 2024. Sales increased $10,639, or 6% in core merchandise categories, increasing in all categories. Sales increased $1,276, or 3% in warehouse ancillary and other businesses, led by pharmacy, partially offset by a decrease in gasoline.

During 2024, the volume of gasoline sold increased approximately 1%, positively impacting net sales by $400, or 17 basis points, which includes the impact of one less week of sales in 2024. Lower gasoline prices negatively impacted net sales by $917, or 39 basis points, compared to 2023, with a 3% decrease in the average price per gallon. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar negatively impacted net sales by approximately $474, 20 basis points, compared to 2023, attributable to our Canadian and Other International operations.

Comparable Sales

Comparable sales increased 5% during 2024 and were positively impacted by an increase in shopping frequency, partially offset by a slight decrease in average ticket.

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Membership Fees

Membership fee revenue increased 5% in 2024, driven by new member sign-ups and upgrades to Executive Membership. These increases were partially offset by one less week of membership fee income in 2024. At the end of 2024, our member renewal rates were 92.9% in the U.S. and Canada and 90.5% worldwide. Renewal rates benefited from higher penetration of Executive members. Our renewal rate, which excludes affiliates of Business members, is a trailing calculation that captures renewals during the period seven to eighteen months prior to the reporting date.

Effective September 1, 2024, we increased our membership fees in the U.S. and Canada for Gold Star (individual), Business, and Business affiliates to $65 per year. The Executive membership fee increased from $120 to $130 (membership fee of $65, plus Executive upgrade of $65), and the maximum annual 2% reward associated with the Executive Membership increased from $1,000 to $1,250. We account for membership fee revenue on a deferred basis, recognized ratably over one year. We expect these fee changes to increase revenues approximately $370 over the next two years, $190 of which will benefit fiscal 2025, primarily in the latter half of the year.

Gross Margin

Gross margin percentage increased 35 basis points. Excluding the impact of gasoline price deflation on net sales, gross margin percentage was 10.88%, an increase of 31 basis points. This increase was positively impacted by: 19 basis points due to warehouse ancillary and other businesses, primarily e-commerce and gasoline; 16 basis points due to the absence of charges related to the discontinuation of our charter shipping activities that were recorded in the first and third quarters of 2023; and three basis points due to a LIFO benefit. This increase was partially offset by four basis points in our core merchandise categories and three basis points due to increased 2% rewards.

The gross margin in core merchandise categories, when expressed as a percentage of core merchandise sales (rather than total net sales), increased 11 basis points. The increase was primarily due to non-foods, partially offset by fresh foods and foods and sundries. This measure eliminates the impact of changes in sales penetration and gross margins from our warehouse ancillary and other businesses.

Gross margin on a segment basis, when expressed as a percentage of the segment's own sales and excluding the impact of changes in gasoline prices on net sales (segment gross margin percentage), increased in our U.S. and Canadian segments. Our U.S. segment performed similarly to the consolidated results above. Our Canadian segment gross margin percentage increased, primarily due to increases in core merchandise categories and warehouse ancillary and other businesses, partially offset by increased 2% rewards. Gross margin percentage decreased in our Other International segment, primarily due to increased 2% rewards and a decrease in core merchandise categories.

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Selling, General and Administrative Expenses

SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales increased six basis points compared to 2023. SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales excluding the impact of gasoline price deflation was 9.10%, an increase of two basis points. The comparison to last year was negatively impacted by two basis points in warehouse operations and other businesses, driven by our U.S. operations, which included the impact of wage increases in March and September 2023, and July 2024, partially offset by sales leverage and improved productivity. SG&A expenses as percentage of net sales were lower in our Canadian and Other International operations.

Interest Expense

Interest expense is primarily related to Senior Notes and financing leases. For more information on our debt arrangements, refer to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Interest Income and Other, Net

The increase in interest income in 2024 was due to higher global interest rates. Foreign-currency transaction gains, net, include revaluation or settlement of monetary assets and liabilities by our Canadian and Other International operations and mark-to-market adjustments for forward foreign-exchange contracts. See Derivatives and Foreign Currency sections in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Provision for Income Taxes

The effective tax rate for 2024 was favorably impacted by discrete tax benefits of $94 related to the portion of the special dividend payable through our 401(k) plan, a net non-recurring tax benefit of $63 related to a transfer pricing settlement and certain true-ups of tax reserves, and $45 of excess tax benefits related to stock compensation.

The effective tax rate for 2023 was favorably impacted by discrete tax benefits of $54 due to excess tax benefits related to stock compensation.

The Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has introduced a framework to implement a global minimum corporate tax of 15% (referred to as Pillar 2) which is effective for fiscal 2025. We will continue to evaluate the impacts of Pillar 2, but do not currently expect a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

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LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

The following table summarizes our significant sources and uses of cash and cash equivalents:

Our primary sources of liquidity are cash flows from operations, cash and cash equivalents, and short-term investments. Cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments were $11,144 and $15,234 at September 1, 2024, and September 3, 2023. Of these balances, unsettled credit and debit card receivables represented approximately $2,519 and $2,282. These receivables generally settle within four days. Changes in foreign exchange rates impacted cash and cash equivalents positively by $40 and $15 in 2024 and 2023, and negatively by $249 in 2022.

Material contractual obligations arising in the normal course of business primarily consist of purchase obligations, long-term debt and related interest payments, leases, and construction and land purchase obligations. See Notes 4 and 5 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report for amounts outstanding on September 1, 2024, related to debt and leases.

Purchase obligations consist of contracts primarily related to merchandise, equipment, and third-party services, the majority of which are due in the next 12 months. Construction and land-purchase obligations consist of contracts primarily related to the development and opening of new and relocated warehouses, the majority of which (other than leases) are due in the next 12 months.

We believe that our cash and investment position and operating cash flow, with capacity under existing and available credit agreements, will be sufficient to meet our liquidity and capital requirements for the foreseeable future and our U.S. current and projected asset position is sufficient to meet our U.S. liquidity requirements.

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Net cash provided by operating activities totaled $11,339 in 2024, compared to $11,068 in 2023. Our cash flow provided by operations is primarily from net sales and membership fees. Cash flow used in operations generally consists of payments to merchandise suppliers, warehouse operating costs, including wages and employee benefits, utilities, credit and debit card processing fees, and operating leases. Cash used in operations also includes payments for income taxes. Changes in our net investment in merchandise inventories (the difference between merchandise inventories and accounts payable) is impacted by several factors, including inventory levels and turnover, payment terms with suppliers, and early payments to obtain discounts.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities totaled $4,409 in 2024, compared to $4,972 in 2023, and is primarily related to capital expenditures. Net cash from investing activities also includes purchases and maturities of short-term investments.

Capital Expenditure Plans

Our primary requirements for capital are acquiring land, buildings, and equipment for new and remodeled warehouses, information systems and manufacturing and distribution facilities. In 2024, we spent $4,710 on capital expenditures, and it is our current intention to spend a similar amount during fiscal 2025. These expenditures are expected to be financed with cash from operations, cash and cash equivalents, and short-term investments. We opened 30 new warehouses, including one relocation, in 2024, and plan to

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open up to 29 additional new warehouses, including three relocations, in 2025. There can be no assurance that current expectations will be realized, and plans are subject to change upon further review of our capital expenditure needs and the economic environment.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Net cash used in financing activities totaled $10,764 in 2024, compared to $2,614 in 2023. Cash flow used in financing activities primarily related to the payment of dividends, repayments of long-term debt and short-term borrowings, repurchases of common stock, and withholding taxes on stock-based awards. On May 18, 2024, we paid the $1,000 outstanding principal balance on the 2.750% Senior Notes, using cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments. Cash flow provided by financing activities included proceeds from short-term borrowings and four Guaranteed Senior Notes totaling approximately $500, at fixed interest rates ranging from 1.400% to 2.120%, issued by our Japan subsidiary.

Dividends

Cash dividends declared in 2024 totaled $8,589 or $19.36 per share, as compared to $1,703 or $3.84 per share in 2023. Dividends in 2024 included a special dividend of $15 per share, resulting in a payment of approximately $6,655. In April 2024, the Board of Directors increased our quarterly cash dividend from $1.02 to $1.16 per share.

Share Repurchase Program

On January 19, 2023, the Board of Directors authorized a share repurchase program in the amount of $4,000, which expires in January 2027. During 2024 and 2023, we repurchased 1,004,000 and 1,341,000 shares of common stock, at an average price per share of $695.29 and $504.68, totaling approximately $698 and $677. These amounts may differ from the accompanying consolidated statements of cash flows due to changes in unsettled repurchases at the end of each fiscal year. Purchases are made from time to time, as conditions warrant, in the open market or in block purchases, pursuant to plans under SEC Rule 10b5-1. Repurchased shares are retired, in accordance with the Washington Business Corporation Act. The remaining amount available to be purchased under our approved plan was $2,865 at the end of 2024.

Bank Credit Facilities and Commercial Paper Programs

We maintain bank credit facilities for working capital and general corporate purposes. At September 1, 2024, we had borrowing capacity under these facilities of $1,198. Our international operations maintain $710 of this capacity under bank credit facilities, of which $167 is guaranteed by the Company. Short-term borrowings outstanding under the bank credit facilities, which are included in other current liabilities on the consolidated balance sheets, were immaterial at the end of 2024 and 2023.

We have letter of credit facilities, for commercial and standby letters of credit, totaling $214. The outstanding commitments under these facilities at the end of 2024 totaled $193, most of which were standby letters of credit that do not expire or have expiration dates within one year. The bank credit facilities have various expiration dates, most within one year, and we generally intend to renew these facilities. The amount of borrowings available at any time under our bank credit facilities is reduced by the amount of standby and commercial letters of credit outstanding.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

In the opinion of management, we have no off-balance sheet arrangements that have had or are reasonably likely to have a material current or future effect on our financial condition or financial statements.

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Critical Accounting Estimates

The preparation of our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP requires that we make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. We base our estimates on historical experience and on assumptions that we believe to be reasonable, and we continue to review and evaluate these estimates. For further information on significant accounting policies, see discussion in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Insurance/Self-insurance Liabilities

Claims for employee health-care benefits, workers’ compensation, general liability, property damage, directors’ and officers’ liability, vehicle liability, inventory loss, and other exposures are funded predominantly through self-insurance. Insurance coverage is maintained for certain risks to limit exposures to very large losses. We use various risk management mechanisms, including a wholly-owned captive insurance subsidiary, and participate in a reinsurance program. Liabilities associated with the risks that we retain are not discounted and are estimated using historical claims experience, demographic factors, severity factors, and other actuarial assumptions. The costs of claims are highly unpredictable and can fluctuate as a result of inflation rates, regulatory or legal changes, and unforeseen developments in claims. While we believe our estimates are reasonable, actual claims and costs could differ significantly from recorded liabilities. Historically, adjustments to our estimates have been immaterial.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

See discussion of Recent Accounting Pronouncements in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Item 7—Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Conditions and Results of Operations (amounts in millions, except per share, share, membership fee, and warehouse count data)

The following Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (MD&A) is intended to promote understanding of the results of operations and financial condition. MD&A is provided as a supplement to, and should be read in conjunction with, our consolidated financial statements and the accompanying Notes to Financial Statements (Part II, Item 8 of this Form 10-K). This section generally discusses the results of operations for 2023 compared to 2022. For discussion related to the results of operations and changes in financial condition for 2022 compared to 2021 refer to Part II, Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our fiscal year 2022 Form 10-K, which was filed with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) on October 5, 2022.

Overview

We believe that the most important driver of our profitability is increasing net sales, particularly comparable sales. Net sales includes our core merchandise categories (foods and sundries, non-foods, and fresh foods), warehouse ancillary (gasoline, pharmacy, optical, food court, hearing aids, and tire installation) and other businesses (e-commerce, business centers, travel and other). Comparable sales is defined as net sales from warehouses open for more than one year, including remodels, relocations and expansions, and sales related to e-commerce websites operating for more than one year. The measure is intended as supplemental information and is not a substitute for net sales presented in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (U.S. GAAP). Comparable sales growth is achieved through increasing shopping frequency from new and existing members and the amount they spend on each visit (average ticket). Sales comparisons can also be particularly influenced by certain factors that are beyond our control: fluctuations in currency exchange rates (with respect to our international operations); inflation or deflation and changes in the cost of gasoline and associated competitive conditions. The higher our comparable sales exclusive of these items, the more we can leverage our SG&A expenses, reducing them as a percentage of sales and enhancing profitability. Generating comparable sales growth is foremost a question of making available to our members the right merchandise at the right prices, a skill that we believe we have repeatedly demonstrated over the long-term. Another substantial factor in net sales growth is the health of the economies in which we do business, including the effects of inflation or deflation, especially the United States. Net sales growth and gross margins are also impacted by our competition, which is vigorous and widespread, across a wide range of global, national and regional wholesalers and retailers, including those with e-commerce operations. While we cannot control or reliably predict general economic health or changes in competition, we believe that we have been successful historically in adapting our business to these changes, such as through adjustments to our pricing and merchandise mix, including increasing the penetration of our private-label items, and through online offerings.

Our philosophy is to provide our members with quality goods and services at competitive prices. We do not focus in the short-term on maximizing prices charged, but instead seek to maintain what we believe is a perception among our members of our “pricing authority” – consistently providing the most competitive values. Merchandise costs in 2023 continued to be impacted by inflation, however at a lower rate than what we experienced in 2022. The impact to our net sales and gross margin is influenced in part by our merchandising and pricing strategies in response to cost increases. Those strategies can include, but are not limited to, working with our suppliers to share in absorbing cost increases, earlier-than-usual purchasing and in greater volumes, as well as passing cost increases on to our members. Our investments in merchandise pricing may include reducing prices on merchandise to drive sales or meet competition and holding prices steady despite cost increases instead of passing the increases on to our members, all negatively impacting gross margin and gross margin as a percentage of net sales (gross margin percentage).

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We believe our gasoline business enhances traffic in our warehouses, but it generally has a lower gross margin percentage and lower SG&A expense, relative to our non-gasoline businesses. A higher penetration of gasoline sales will generally lower our gross margin percentage. Rapidly changing gasoline prices may significantly impact our near-term net sales growth. Generally, rising gasoline prices benefit net sales growth which, given the higher sales base, negatively impacts our gross margin percentage but decreases our SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales. A decline in gasoline prices has the inverse effect.

Government actions in various countries relating to tariffs, particularly China and the United States, have affected the costs of some of our merchandise. The degree of our exposure is dependent on (among other things) the type of goods, rates imposed, and timing of the tariffs. Higher tariffs could adversely impact our results.

We also achieve net sales growth by opening new warehouses. As our warehouse base grows, available and desirable sites become more difficult to secure, and square footage growth becomes a comparatively less substantial component of growth. The negative aspects of such growth, however, including lower initial operating profitability relative to existing warehouses and cannibalization of sales at existing warehouses when openings occur in existing markets, are continuing to decline in significance as they relate to the results of our total operations. Our rate of square footage growth is generally higher in foreign markets, due to the smaller base in those markets, and we expect that to continue. Our e-commerce business, domestically and internationally, generally has a lower gross margin percentage than our warehouse operations.

The membership format is an integral part of our business and has a significant effect on our profitability. This format is designed to reinforce member loyalty and provide continuing fee revenue. The extent to which we achieve growth in our membership base, increase the penetration of our Executive members, and sustain high renewal rates materially influences our profitability. Our paid-membership growth rate may be adversely impacted when warehouse openings occur in existing markets as compared to new markets.

Our financial performance depends heavily on controlling costs. While we believe that we have achieved successes in this area, some significant costs are partially outside our control, particularly health care and utility expenses. With respect to the compensation of our employees, our philosophy is not to seek to minimize their wages and benefits. Rather, we believe that achieving our longer-term objectives of reducing employee turnover and enhancing employee satisfaction requires maintaining compensation levels that are better than the industry average for much of our workforce. This may cause us, for example, to absorb costs that other employers might seek to pass through to their workforces. Because our business operates on very low margins, modest changes in various items in the consolidated statements of income, particularly merchandise costs and SG&A expenses, can have substantial impacts on net income.

Our operating model is generally the same across our U.S., Canadian, and Other International operating segments (see Note 11 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report). Certain operations in the Other International segment have relatively higher rates of square footage growth, lower wage and benefit costs as a percentage of sales, less or no direct membership warehouse competition, or lack e-commerce or business delivery.

In discussions of our consolidated operating results, we refer to the impact of changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar, which are differences between the foreign-exchange rates we use to convert the financial results of our international operations from local currencies into U.S. dollars. This impact of foreign-exchange rate changes is calculated based on the difference between the current and prior period's currency exchange rates. The impact of changes in gasoline prices on net sales is calculated based on the difference between the current and prior period's average price per gallon sold. Results expressed excluding the impacts of foreign exchange and gasoline prices should be reviewed in conjunction with results reported in accordance with U.S. GAAP.

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Our fiscal year ends on the Sunday closest to August 31. References to 2023 relate to the 53-week fiscal year ended September 3, 2023. References to 2022 and 2021 relate to the 52-week fiscal years ended August 28, 2022, and August 29, 2021. Certain percentages presented are calculated using actual results prior to rounding. Unless otherwise noted, references to net income relate to net income attributable to Costco.

Highlights for 2023 versus 2022 include:

•We opened 26 new warehouses, including three relocations: 13 net new in the U.S. and 10 new in our Other International segment. We opened the same number of new warehouses, including relocations, in 2022;

•Net sales increased 7% to $237,710, driven by a 3% increase in comparable sales, sales at new warehouses opened in 2022 and 2023, and the benefit of one additional week of sales in 2023;

•Membership fee revenue increased 8% to $4,580, driven by new member sign-ups, upgrades to Executive membership, and one additional week of membership fees in 2023;

•Gross margin percentage increased nine basis points, driven primarily by a smaller LIFO charge in 2023 compared to 2022 and our core merchandise categories. This was partially offset by charges of $391, predominantly related to the discontinuation of our charter shipping activities;

•SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales increased 20 basis points, due to increased costs in warehouse operations and other businesses, primarily wage increases effective in March and July 2022, and March 2023, as well as lower sales growth;

•The effective tax rate in 2023 was 25.9%, compared to 24.6% in 2022;

•Net income increased 8% to $6,292, or $14.16 per diluted share compared to $5,844, or $13.14 per diluted share in 2022;

•In January 2023, the Board of Directors authorized a new share repurchase program in the amount of $4,000; and

•In April 2023, the Board of Directors approved a 13% increase in the quarterly cash dividend.

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RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Net Sales

Net Sales

Net sales increased $14,980 or 7% during 2023. The improvement was attributable to an increase in comparable sales of 3%, sales at new warehouses opened in 2022 and 2023, and one additional week of sales in 2023. Sales increased $12,761, or 7% in core merchandise categories, led by foods and sundries and fresh foods; while non-foods decreased. Sales increased $2,219, or 5% in warehouse ancillary and other businesses, led by pharmacy, food court, and travel.

During 2023, changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar negatively impacted net sales by approximately $3,484, 156 basis points, compared to 2022, attributable to our Canadian and Other International operations. The volume of gasoline sold increased approximately 7%, positively impacting net sales by $2,148, or 96 basis points. Lower gasoline prices negatively impacted net sales by $1,592, or 71 basis points, compared to 2022, with a 6% decrease in the average price per gallon.

Comparable Sales

Comparable sales increased 3% during 2023 and were positively impacted by increases in shopping frequency, partially offset by a decrease in average ticket.

Membership Fees

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Membership fee revenue increased 8% in 2023, driven by new member sign-ups, upgrades to Executive membership, and the benefit of an additional week. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar negatively impacted membership fees by $76 compared to 2022. At the end of 2023, our member renewal rates were 92.7% in the U.S. and Canada and 90.4% worldwide. More members auto renewing and higher penetration of Executive members benefit renewal rates. Our renewal rate, which excludes affiliates of Business members, is a trailing calculation that captures renewals during the period seven to eighteen months prior to the reporting date.

We account for membership fee revenue on a deferred basis, recognized ratably over the one-year membership period.

Gross Margin

Gross margin percentage increased nine basis points compared to 2022. Excluding the impact of gasoline price deflation on net sales, gross margin was 10.50%, an increase of two basis points. This two basis point increase was positively impacted by: 18 basis points due to a smaller LIFO charge in 2023 compared to 2022, and seven basis points due to core merchandise categories, predominantly foods and sundries. These were offset by: 16 basis points due to the downsizing and then discontinuation of our charter shipping activities; four basis points due to increased 2% rewards; and three basis points due to warehouse ancillary and other businesses, predominantly e-commerce, partially offset by gasoline and business centers. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar negatively impacted gross margin by approximately $349, compared to 2022, attributable to our Canadian and Other International Operations.

The gross margin in core merchandise categories, when expressed as a percentage of core merchandise sales (rather than total net sales), increased two basis points, driven by foods and sundries and non-foods, partially offset by fresh foods. This measure eliminates the impact of changes in sales penetration and gross margins from our warehouse ancillary and other businesses.

Gross margin on a segment basis, when expressed as a percentage of the segment's own sales and excluding the impact of changes in gasoline prices on net sales (segment gross margin percentage), increased in our U.S. segment, due to a smaller LIFO charge and increases in core merchandise categories, primarily foods and sundries, partially offset by the charges related to the discontinuation of our charter shipping activities discussed above and warehouse ancillary and other businesses. Gross margin percentage increased in our Canada segment, attributable to increases in core merchandise categories and warehouse ancillary and other businesses. Our Other International gross margin percentage decreased, largely due to decreases in core merchandise categories, partially offset by warehouse ancillary and other businesses. All segments were negatively impacted by increased 2% rewards.

Selling, General and Administrative Expenses

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SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales increased 20 basis points compared to 2022. SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales excluding the impact of gasoline price deflation was 9.02%, an increase of 14 basis points. The comparison to last year was negatively impacted by 16 basis points in warehouse operations and other businesses, largely driven by wage increases effective in March and July 2022, and March 2023, as well as lower sales growth. Central operating costs were also higher by six basis points. SG&A was positively impacted by eight basis points due to the prior year's write-off of information technology assets and a charge related to granting our employees additional vacation. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar decreased SG&A expenses by approximately $281 compared to 2022, attributable to our Canadian and Other International Operations.

Interest Expense

Interest expense is primarily related to Senior Notes and financing leases. For more information on our debt arrangements, refer to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Interest Income and Other, Net

The increase in interest income in 2023 was due to higher global interest rates and higher average cash and investment balances. Foreign-currency transaction gains, net include revaluation or settlement of monetary assets and liabilities by our Canadian and Other International operations and mark-to-market adjustments for forward foreign-exchange contracts. See Derivatives and Foreign Currency sections in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Provision for Income Taxes

The effective tax rate for 2023 was impacted by net discrete tax benefits of $62, primarily due to excess tax benefits related to stock compensation. Excluding discrete net tax benefits, the tax rate was 26.6%.

The effective tax rate for 2022 was impacted by net discrete tax benefits of $130, primarily due to excess tax benefits related to stock compensation. Excluding discrete net tax benefits, the tax rate was 26.2%.

LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

The following table summarizes our significant sources and uses of cash and cash equivalents:

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Our primary sources of liquidity are cash flows from operations, cash and cash equivalents, and short-term investments. Cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments were $15,234 and $11,049 at September 3, 2023, and August 28, 2022. Of these balances, unsettled credit and debit card receivables represented $2,282 and $2,010. These receivables generally settle within four days. Changes in foreign exchange rates impacted cash and cash equivalents positively by $15 and $46 in 2023 and 2021, and negatively by $249 in 2022.

Material contractual obligations arising in the normal course of business primarily consist of purchase obligations, long-term debt and related interest payments, leases, and construction and land purchase obligations. See Notes 4 and 5 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report for amounts outstanding on September 3, 2023, related to debt and leases.

Purchase obligations consist of contracts primarily related to merchandise, equipment, and third-party services, the majority of which are due in the next 12 months. Construction and land-purchase obligations consist of contracts primarily related to the development and opening of new and relocated warehouses, the majority of which (other than leases) are due in the next 12 months.

Management believes that our cash and investment position and operating cash flows, with capacity under existing and available credit agreements, will be sufficient to meet our liquidity and capital requirements for the foreseeable future. We believe that our U.S. current and projected asset position is sufficient to meet our U.S. liquidity requirements.

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Net cash provided by operating activities totaled $11,068 in 2023, compared to $7,392 in 2022. Our cash flow provided by operations is primarily from net sales and membership fees. Cash flow used in operations generally consists of payments to merchandise suppliers, warehouse operating costs, including payroll and employee benefits, utilities, and credit and debit card processing fees. Cash used in operations also includes payments for income taxes. Changes in our net investment in merchandise inventories (the difference between merchandise inventories and accounts payable) is impacted by several factors, including inventory levels and turnover, the forward deployment of inventory to accelerate delivery times, payment terms with suppliers, and early payments to obtain discounts.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities totaled $4,972 in 2023, compared to $3,915 in 2022, and is primarily related to capital expenditures. Net cash flows from investing activities also includes purchases and maturities of short-term investments.

Capital Expenditures

Our primary requirements for capital are acquiring land, buildings, and equipment for new and remodeled warehouses. Capital is also required for information systems, manufacturing and distribution facilities, initial warehouse operations, and working capital. In 2023, we spent $4,323 on capital expenditures, and it is our current intention to spend approximately $4,400 to $4,600 during fiscal 2024. These expenditures are expected to be financed with cash from operations, existing cash and cash equivalents, and short-term investments. We opened 26 new warehouses, including three relocations, in 2023, and plan to open up to 28 additional new warehouses, including one relocation, in 2024. There can be no assurance that current expectations will be realized, and plans are subject to change upon further review of our capital expenditure needs and the economic environment.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Net cash used in financing activities totaled $2,614 in 2023, compared to $4,283 in 2022. Cash flows used in financing activities primarily related to the payment of dividends, repurchases of common stock, and withholding taxes on stock-based awards. In 2022, cash flow used in financing activities included

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payments to our former joint-venture partner for a dividend and the purchase of their equity interest in Taiwan, totaling $1,050 in the aggregate, and repayments of our 2.300% Senior Notes.

Stock Repurchase Programs

On January 19, 2023, the Board of Directors authorized a new share repurchase program in the amount of $4,000, which expires in January 2027. During 2023 and 2022, we repurchased 1,341,000 and 863,000 shares of common stock, at average prices of $504.68 and $511.46, totaling approximately $677 and $442. These amounts may differ from the accompanying consolidated statements of cash flows due to changes in unsettled repurchases at the end of each fiscal year. Purchases are made from time to time, as conditions warrant, in the open market or in block purchases, pursuant to plans under SEC Rule 10b5-1. Repurchased shares are retired, in accordance with the Washington Business Corporation Act. The remaining amount available to be purchased under our approved plan was $3,563 at the end of 2023.

Dividends

Cash dividends declared in 2023 totaled $3.84 per share, as compared to $3.38 per share in 2022. In April 2023, the Board of Directors increased our quarterly cash dividend from $0.90 to $1.02 per share.

Bank Credit Facilities and Commercial Paper Programs

We maintain bank credit facilities for working capital and general corporate purposes. At September 3, 2023, we had borrowing capacity under these facilities of $1,234. Our international operations maintain $756 of this capacity under bank credit facilities, of which $167 is guaranteed by the Company. Short-term borrowings outstanding under the bank credit facilities, which are included in other current liabilities on the consolidated balance sheets, were immaterial at the end of 2023 and 2022.

The Company has letter of credit facilities, for commercial and standby letters of credit, totaling $217. The outstanding commitments under these facilities at the end of 2023 totaled $182, most of which were standby letters of credit that do not expire or have expiration dates within one year. The bank credit facilities have various expiration dates, most within one year, and we generally intend to renew these facilities. The amount of borrowings available at any time under our bank credit facilities is reduced by the amount of standby and commercial letters of credit outstanding.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

In the opinion of management, we have no off-balance sheet arrangements that have had or are reasonably likely to have a material current or future effect on our financial condition or financial statements.

Critical Accounting Estimates

The preparation of our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP requires that we make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. We base our estimates on historical experience and on assumptions that we believe to be reasonable, and we continue to review and evaluate these estimates. For further information on significant accounting policies, see discussion in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Insurance/Self-insurance Liabilities

Claims for employee health-care benefits, workers’ compensation, general liability, property damage, directors’ and officers’ liability, vehicle liability, inventory loss, and other exposures are funded predominantly through self-insurance. Insurance coverage is maintained for certain risks to seek to limit exposures arising from very large losses. We use various risk management mechanisms, including a

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wholly-owned captive insurance subsidiary, and participate in a reinsurance program. Liabilities associated with the risks that we retain are not discounted and are estimated using historical claims experience, demographic factors, severity factors, and other actuarial assumptions. The costs of claims are highly unpredictable and can fluctuate as a result of inflation rates, regulatory or legal changes, and unforeseen developments in claims. While we believe our estimates are reasonable, actual claims and costs could differ significantly from recorded liabilities. Historically, adjustments to our estimates have not been material.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

We do not expect that any recently issued accounting pronouncements will have a material effect on our financial statements.

Item 7—Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Conditions and Results of Operations (amounts in millions, except per share, share, membership fee, and warehouse count data)

The following Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (MD&A) is intended to promote understanding of the results of operations and financial condition. MD&A is provided as a supplement to, and should be read in conjunction with, our consolidated financial statements and the accompanying Notes to Financial Statements (Part II, Item 8 of this Form 10-K). This section generally discusses the results of operations for 2022 compared to 2021. For discussion related to the results of operations and changes in financial condition for 2021 compared to 2020 refer to Part II, Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our fiscal year 2021 Form 10-K, which was filed with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) on October 6, 2021.

Overview

We believe that the most important driver of our profitability is increasing net sales, particularly comparable sales. Net sales includes our core merchandise categories (foods and sundries, non-foods, and fresh foods), warehouse ancillary (gasoline, pharmacy, optical, food court, hearing aids, and tire installation) and other businesses (e-commerce, business centers, travel and other). We define comparable sales as net sales from warehouses open for more than one year, including remodels, relocations and expansions, and sales related to e-commerce websites operating for more than one year. Comparable sales growth is achieved through increasing shopping frequency from new and existing members and the amount they spend on each visit (average ticket). Sales comparisons can also be particularly influenced by certain factors that are beyond our control: fluctuations in currency exchange rates (with respect to our international operations); inflation and changes in the cost of gasoline and associated competitive conditions. The higher our comparable sales exclusive of these items, the more we can leverage our SG&A expenses, reducing them as a percentage of sales and enhancing profitability. Generating comparable sales growth is foremost a question of making available to our members the right merchandise at the right prices, a skill that we believe we have repeatedly demonstrated over the long-term. Another substantial factor in net sales growth is the health of the economies in which we do business, including the effects of inflation or deflation, especially the United States. Net sales growth and gross margins are also impacted by our competition, which is vigorous and widespread, across a wide range of global, national and regional wholesalers and retailers, including those with e-commerce operations. While we cannot control or reliably predict general economic health or changes in competition, we believe that we have been successful historically in adapting our business to these changes, such as through adjustments to our pricing and merchandise mix, including increasing the penetration of our private-label items, and through online offerings.

Our philosophy is to provide our members with quality goods and services at competitive prices. We do not focus in the short-term on maximizing prices charged, but instead seek to maintain what we believe is a perception among our members of our “pricing authority” – consistently providing the most competitive values. Merchandise costs in 2022 were impacted by inflation higher than what we have experienced in recent years. The impact to our net sales and gross margin is influenced in part by our merchandising and pricing strategies in response to cost increases. Those strategies can include, but are not limited to, working with our suppliers to share in absorbing cost increases, earlier-than-usual purchasing and in greater volumes, offering seasonal merchandise outside its season, as well as passing cost increases on to our members. Our investments in merchandise pricing may include reducing prices on merchandise to drive sales or meet competition and holding prices steady despite cost increases instead of passing the increases on to our members, all negatively impacting gross margin and gross margin as a percentage of net sales (gross margin percentage).

We believe our gasoline business enhances traffic in our warehouses, but it generally has a lower gross margin percentage relative to our non-gasoline business. It also has lower SG&A expenses as a percent of net sales compared to our non-gasoline business. A higher penetration of gasoline sales will generally lower our gross margin percentage. Rapidly changing gasoline prices may significantly impact our near-

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term net sales growth. Generally, rising gasoline prices benefit net sales growth which, given the higher sales base, negatively impacts our gross margin percentage but decreases our SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales. A decline in gasoline prices has the inverse effect. Additionally, actions in various countries, particularly China and the United States, have affected the costs of some of our merchandise. The degree of our exposure is dependent on (among other things) the type of goods, rates imposed, and timing of the tariffs. Higher tariffs could adversely impact our results.

We also achieve net sales growth by opening new warehouses. As our warehouse base grows, available and desirable sites become more difficult to secure, and square footage growth becomes a comparatively less substantial component of growth. The negative aspects of such growth, however, including lower initial operating profitability relative to existing warehouses and cannibalization of sales at existing warehouses when openings occur in existing markets, are continuing to decline in significance as they relate to the results of our total operations. Our rate of square footage growth is generally higher in foreign markets, due to the smaller base in those markets, and we expect that to continue. Our e-commerce business growth, domestically and internationally, has also increased our sales but it generally has a lower gross margin percentage relative to our warehouse operations. E-commerce sales growth slowed in 2022 compared to 2021 and 2020.

The membership format is an integral part of our business and has a significant effect on our profitability. This format is designed to reinforce member loyalty and provide continuing fee revenue. The extent to which we achieve growth in our membership base, increase the penetration of our Executive members, and sustain high renewal rates materially influences our profitability. Our paid membership growth rate may be adversely impacted when warehouse openings occur in existing markets as compared to new markets.

Our financial performance depends heavily on controlling costs. While we believe that we have achieved successes in this area, some significant costs are partially outside our control, particularly health care and utility expenses. With respect to the compensation of our employees, our philosophy is not to seek to minimize their wages and benefits. Rather, we believe that achieving our longer-term objectives of reducing employee turnover and enhancing employee satisfaction requires maintaining compensation levels that are better than the industry average for much of our workforce. This may cause us, for example, to absorb costs that other employers might seek to pass through to their workforces. Because our business operates on very low margins, modest changes in various items in the consolidated statements of income, particularly merchandise costs and SG&A expenses, can have substantial impacts on net income.

Our operating model is generally the same across our U.S., Canadian, and Other International operating segments (see Note 11 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report). Certain operations in the Other International segment have relatively higher rates of square footage growth, lower wage and benefit costs as a percentage of sales, less or no direct membership warehouse competition, or lack e-commerce or business delivery.

In discussions of our consolidated operating results, we refer to the impact of changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar, which are the differences between the foreign-exchange rates we use to convert the financial results of our international operations from local currencies into U.S. dollars. This impact of foreign-exchange rate changes is calculated based on the difference between the current period's currency exchange rates and that of the comparable prior period. The impact of changes in gasoline prices on net sales is calculated based on the difference between the current period's average price per gallon sold and that of the comparable prior period.

Our fiscal year ends on the Sunday closest to August 31. References to 2022, 2021, and 2020 relate to the 52-week fiscal years ended August 28, 2022, August 29, 2021, and August 30, 2020, respectively. Certain percentages presented are calculated using actual results prior to rounding. Unless otherwise noted, references to net income relate to net income attributable to Costco.

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Highlights for 2022 versus 2021 include:

•We opened 26 new warehouses, including 3 relocations: 14 net new in the U.S., 2 net new in our Canadian segment, and 7 new in our Other International segment, compared to 22 new warehouses, including 2 relocations in 2021;

•Net sales increased 16% to $222,730 driven by a 14% increase in comparable sales and sales at new warehouses opened in 2021 and 2022;

•Membership fee revenue increased 9% to $4,224, driven by new member sign-ups, upgrades to Executive membership, and an increase in our renewal rate;

•Gross margin percentage decreased 65 basis points, driven primarily by our core merchandise categories and a LIFO charge for higher merchandise costs;

•SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales decreased 77 basis points, primarily due to leveraging increased sales and ceasing of incremental wages related to COVID-19, despite additional wage and benefits increases;

•We incurred a one-time $77 pretax charge, primarily related to granting our employees one additional day of paid time off in March 2022;

•The effective tax rate in 2022 was 24.6% compared to 24.0% in 2021;

•Net income increased 17% to $5,844, or $13.14 per diluted share compared to $5,007, or $11.27 per diluted share in 2021;

•In June 2022, the Company paid a cash dividend of $208 and purchased the remaining equity interest of its Taiwan operations from its former joint-venture partner for $842, totaling $1,050 in the aggregate; and

•In April 2022, the Board of Directors approved an increase in the quarterly cash dividend from $0.79 to $0.90 per share.

COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic continued to impact our business during 2022, albeit to a lesser extent. COVID-related and other supply and logistics constraints have continued to adversely affect some merchandise categories and are expected to do so for the foreseeable future. During 2021, we paid $515 in incremental wages related to COVID-19, which ceased in February 2021.

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RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Net Sales

Net Sales

Net sales increased $30,678 or 16% during 2022. The improvement was attributable to an increase in comparable sales of 14%, and sales at new warehouses opened in 2021 and 2022. Sales increased $15,830 in core merchandise categories and $14,848 in warehouse ancillary and other businesses. The rate of increase was strongest in our gasoline, business centers, and travel businesses. Sales continued to be impacted by inflation, higher than what we experienced in previous fiscal years.

During 2022, higher gasoline prices positively impacted net sales by $9,230, 481 basis points, compared to 2021, with a 42% increase in the average price per gallon. The volume of gasoline sold increased approximately 22%, positively impacting net sales by $3,847, 200 basis points. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar negatively impacted net sales by approximately $1,762, 92 basis points, compared to 2021, attributable primarily to our Other International operations.

Comparable Sales

Comparable sales increased 14% during 2022 and were positively impacted by increases in shopping frequency and average ticket, which includes the effects of inflation and changes in foreign currency. E-commerce comparable sales increased 10% during 2022, including inflation.

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Membership Fees

Membership fee revenue increased 9% in 2022, driven by new member sign-ups and upgrades to Executive membership. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar negatively impacted membership fees by $42, compared to 2021. At the end of 2022, our member renewal rates were 93% in the U.S. and Canada and 90% worldwide. Renewal rates continue to benefit from more members auto renewing and increased penetration of Executive members, who on average renew at a higher rate. Our renewal rate, which excludes affiliates of Business members, is a trailing calculation that captures renewals during the period seven to eighteen months prior to the reporting date. We account for membership fee revenue on a deferred basis, recognized ratably over the one-year membership period.

Gross Margin

Total gross margin percentage decreased 65 basis points compared to 2021. Excluding the impact of gasoline price inflation on net sales, gross margin was 10.94%, a decrease of 19 basis points. This was primarily due to a 33 basis-point decrease in core merchandise categories, predominantly driven by decreases in fresh foods and foods and sundries, and 19 basis points due to a LIFO charge for higher merchandise costs. Gross margin was also negatively impacted by one basis point due to increased 2% rewards. Warehouse ancillary and other businesses positively impacted gross margin by 29 basis points, predominantly gasoline, partially offset by e-commerce. Gross margin was positively impacted by five basis points due to the net impact of ceasing incremental wages related to COVID-19 and the negative impact of a one-time charge related to granting our employees one additional day of paid time off. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar negatively impacted gross margin by approximately $176, compared to 2021, primarily attributable to our Other International Operations.

The gross margin in core merchandise categories, when expressed as a percentage of core merchandise sales (rather than total net sales), decreased 27 basis points. The decrease was across all categories, most significantly in fresh foods. This measure eliminates the impact of changes in sales penetration and gross margins from our warehouse ancillary and other businesses.

Gross margin on a segment basis, when expressed as a percentage of the segment's own sales and excluding the impact of changes in gasoline prices on net sales (segment gross margin percentage), decreased across all segments. All segments were negatively impacted due to decreases in core merchandise categories, partially offset by increases in warehouse ancillary and other businesses. Gross margin in our U.S. segment was also negatively impacted by the LIFO charge. Our Other International segment was negatively impacted by increased 2% rewards. All segments benefited from the ceasing of incremental wages related to COVID-19.

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Selling, General and Administrative Expenses

SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales decreased 77 basis points compared to 2021. SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales excluding the impact of gasoline price inflation was 9.26%, a decrease of 39 basis points. Warehouse operations and other businesses were lower by 17 basis points, largely attributable to leveraging increased sales. This includes the impact of the starting wage increase we instituted in October 2021, as well the increased wages and benefits that were effective on March 14, 2022, and July 4, 2022. SG&A expenses was benefited by a net of 16 basis points due to the positive impact of ceasing incremental wages related to COVID-19, partially offset by higher write-offs of certain information technology assets, and expenses related to granting our employees one additional day of paid time off. Central operating costs were lower by five basis points, and stock compensation expense was lower by one basis point. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar decreased SG&A expenses by approximately $148, compared to 2021, primarily attributable to our Other International operations.

Interest Expense

Interest expense primarily relates to Senior Notes and financing leases. Interest expense decreased in 2022 due to repayment of the 2.300% Senior Notes on December 1, 2021. For more information on our debt arrangements, refer to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Interest Income and Other, Net

The increase in interest income in 2022 was primarily due to higher global interest rates. Foreign-currency transaction gains, net, include revaluation or settlement of monetary assets and liabilities by our Canadian and Other International operations and mark-to-market adjustments for forward foreign-exchange contracts. See Derivatives and Foreign Currency sections in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

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Provision for Income Taxes

The effective tax rate for 2022 was impacted by net discrete tax benefits of $130. This included $94 of excess tax benefits related to stock compensation. Excluding discrete net tax benefits, the tax rate was 26.2% for 2022.

The effective tax rate for 2021 was impacted by net discrete tax benefits of $163. This included $75 of excess tax benefits related to stock compensation, $70 related to the special cash dividend paid through our 401(k) plan, and $19 related to a reduction in the valuation allowance against certain deferred tax assets. Excluding net discrete tax benefits, the tax rate was 26.4% for 2021.

LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

The following table summarizes our significant sources and uses of cash and cash equivalents:

Our primary sources of liquidity are cash flows generated from our operations, cash and cash equivalents, and short-term investments. Cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments were $11,049 and $12,175 at the end of 2022 and 2021, respectively. Of these balances, unsettled credit and debit card receivables represented approximately $2,010 and $1,816 at the end of 2022 and 2021. These receivables generally settle within four days. Changes in foreign exchange rates impacted cash and cash equivalents negatively by $249 in 2022, and positively by $46 and $70 in 2021 and 2020.

Material contractual obligations arising in the normal course of business primarily consist of purchase obligations, long-term debt and related interest payments, leases, and construction and land purchase obligations. See Notes 4 and 5 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report for amounts outstanding on August 28, 2022, related to debt and leases.

Purchase obligations consist of contracts primarily related to merchandise, equipment, and third-party services, the majority of which are due in the next 12 months. Construction and land purchase obligations consist of contracts primarily related to the development and opening of new and relocated warehouses, the majority of which (other than leases) are due in the next 12 months.

Management believes that our cash and investment position and operating cash flows with capacity under existing and available credit agreements will be sufficient to meet our liquidity and capital requirements for the foreseeable future. We believe that our U.S. current and projected asset position is sufficient to meet our U.S. liquidity requirements.

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Net cash provided by operating activities totaled $7,392 in 2022, compared to $8,958 in 2021. Our cash flow provided by operations is primarily from net sales and membership fees. Cash flow used in operations generally consists of payments to merchandise suppliers, warehouse operating costs, including payroll and employee benefits, utilities, and credit and debit card processing fees. Cash used in operations also includes payments for income taxes. Changes in our net investment in merchandise inventories (the difference between merchandise inventories and accounts payable) is impacted by

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several factors, including how fast inventory is sold, the forward deployment of inventory to accelerate delivery times, payment terms with our suppliers, and early payments to obtain discounts from suppliers.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities totaled $3,915 in 2022, compared to $3,535 in 2021, and is primarily related to capital expenditures. Net cash flows from investing activities also includes purchases and maturities of short-term investments.

Capital Expenditures

Our primary requirements for capital are acquiring land, buildings, and equipment for new and remodeled warehouses. Capital is also required for information systems, manufacturing and distribution facilities, initial warehouse operations, and working capital. In 2022, we spent $3,891 on capital expenditures, and it is our current intention to spend approximately $3,800 to $4,000 during fiscal 2023. These expenditures are expected to be financed with cash from operations, existing cash and cash equivalents, and short-term investments. We opened 26 new warehouses, including three relocations, in 2022, and plan to open approximately up to 29 additional new warehouses, including four relocations, in 2023. There can be no assurance that current expectations will be realized, and plans are subject to change upon further review of our capital expenditure needs or based on the economic environment.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Net cash used in financing activities totaled $4,283 in 2022, compared to $6,488 in 2021. Cash flows used in financing activities primarily related to the payment of dividends, payments to our former joint-venture partner for a dividend and the purchase of their equity interest in Taiwan, totaling $1,050 in the aggregate, repayments of our 2.300% Senior Notes, repurchases of common stock, and withholding taxes on stock awards.

Stock Repurchase Programs

During 2022 and 2021, we repurchased 863,000 and 1,358,000 shares of common stock, at average prices of $511.46 and $364.39, respectively, totaling approximately $442 and $495, respectively. These amounts may differ from the stock repurchase balances in the accompanying consolidated statements of cash flows due to changes in unsettled stock repurchases at the end of each fiscal year. Purchases are made from time-to-time, as conditions warrant, in the open market or in block purchases and pursuant to plans under SEC Rule 10b5-1. Repurchased shares are retired, in accordance with the Washington Business Corporation Act. The remaining amount available to be purchased under our approved plan was $2,808 at the end of 2022.

Dividends

Cash dividends declared in 2022 totaled $3.38 per share, as compared to $12.98 per share in 2021. Dividends in 2021 included a special dividend of $10.00 per share, aggregating approximately $4,430. In April 2022, the Board of Directors increased our quarterly cash dividend from $0.79 to $0.90 per share.

Bank Credit Facilities and Commercial Paper Programs

We maintain bank credit facilities for working capital and general corporate purposes. At August 28, 2022, we had borrowing capacity under these facilities of $1,257. Our international operations maintain $773 of this capacity under bank credit facilities, of which $176 is guaranteed by the Company. Short-term borrowings outstanding under the bank credit facilities were $88 and $41 at the end of 2022 and 2021.

The Company has letter of credit facilities, for commercial and standby letters of credit, totaling $224. The outstanding commitments under these facilities at the end of 2022 totaled $184, most of which were standby letters of credit that do not expire or have expiration dates within one year. The bank credit facilities have various expiration dates, most within one year, and we generally intend to renew these

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facilities. The amount of borrowings available at any time under our bank credit facilities is reduced by the amount of standby and commercial letters of credit outstanding.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

In the opinion of management, we have no off-balance sheet arrangements that have had or are reasonably likely to have a material current or future effect on our financial condition or financial statements.

Critical Accounting Estimates

The preparation of our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (U.S. GAAP) requires that we make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. We base our estimates on historical experience and on assumptions that we believe to be reasonable, and we continue to review and evaluate these estimates. For further information on significant accounting policies, see discussion in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Insurance/Self-insurance Liabilities

Claims for employee health-care benefits, workers’ compensation, general liability, property damage, directors’ and officers’ liability, vehicle liability, inventory loss, and other exposures are funded predominantly through self-insurance. Insurance coverage is maintained for certain risks to seek to limit exposures arising from very large losses. We use different risk management mechanisms, including a wholly-owned captive insurance subsidiary, and participate in a reinsurance program. Liabilities associated with the risks that we retain are not discounted and are estimated by using historical claims experience, demographic factors, severity factors, and other actuarial assumptions. The costs of claims are highly unpredictable and can fluctuate as a result of inflation rates, regulatory or legal changes, and unforeseen developments in claims. While we believe our estimates are reasonable and provide for a certain degree of coverage to account for these variables, actual claims and costs could differ significantly from recorded liabilities. Historically, adjustments to our estimates have not been material.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

We do not expect that any recently issued accounting pronouncements will have a material effect on our financial statements.

Item 7—Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Conditions and Results of Operations (amounts in millions, except per share, share, membership fee, and warehouse count data)

The following Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations (MD&A) is intended to promote understanding of the results of operations and financial condition. MD&A is provided as a supplement to, and should be read in conjunction with, our consolidated financial statements and the accompanying Notes to Financial Statements (Part II, Item 8 of this Form 10-K). This section generally discusses the results of operations for 2021 compared to 2020. For discussion related to the results of operations and changes in financial condition for 2020 compared to 2019 refer to Part II, Item 7, Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our fiscal year 2020 Form 10-K, which was filed with the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) on October 7, 2020. In 2021, we combined the hardlines and softlines merchandise categories into non-foods. This change did not have a material impact on the discussion of our results of operations.

Overview

We believe that the most important driver of our profitability is increasing net sales, particularly comparable sales growth. Net sales includes our core merchandise categories (foods and sundries, non-foods, and fresh foods), warehouse ancillary (includes gasoline, pharmacy, optical, food court, hearing aids, and tire installation) and other businesses (includes e-commerce, business centers, travel and other). We define comparable sales as net sales from warehouses open for more than one year, including remodels, relocations and expansions, and sales-related to e-commerce websites operating for more than one year. Comparable sales growth is achieved through increasing shopping frequency from new and existing members and the amount they spend on each visit (average ticket). Sales comparisons can also be particularly influenced by certain factors that are beyond our control: fluctuations in currency exchange rates (with respect to the consolidation of the results of our international operations); and changes in the cost of gasoline and associated competitive conditions. The higher our comparable sales exclusive of these items, the more we can leverage certain of our selling, general and administrative (SG&A) expenses, reducing them as a percentage of sales and enhancing profitability. Generating comparable sales growth is foremost a question of making available to our members the right merchandise at the right prices, a skill that we believe we have repeatedly demonstrated over the long-term. Another substantial factor in net sales growth is the health of the economies in which we do business, including the effects of inflation or deflation, especially the United States. Net sales growth and gross margins are also impacted by our competition, which is vigorous and widespread, across a wide range of global, national and regional wholesalers and retailers, including those with e-commerce operations. While we cannot control or reliably predict general economic health or changes in competition, we believe that we have been successful historically in adapting our business to these changes, such as through adjustments to our pricing and merchandise mix, including increasing the penetration of our private-label items and through online offerings.

Our philosophy is to provide our members with quality goods and services at competitive prices. We do not focus in the short-term on maximizing prices charged, but instead seek to maintain what we believe is a perception among our members of our “pricing authority” on quality goods – consistently providing the most competitive values. Our investments in merchandise pricing may include reducing prices on merchandise to drive sales or meet competition and holding prices steady despite cost increases instead of passing the increases on to our members, all negatively impacting gross margin as a percentage of net sales (gross margin percentage). We believe our gasoline business draws members, but it generally has a lower gross margin percentage relative to our non-gasoline business. It also has lower SG&A expenses as a percent of net sales compared to our non-gasoline business. A higher penetration of gasoline sales will generally lower our gross margin percentage. Rapidly changing gasoline prices may significantly impact our near-term net sales growth. Generally, rising gasoline prices benefit net sales growth which, given the higher sales base, negatively impacts our gross margin percentage but decreases our SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales. A decline in gasoline prices has the inverse effect. Additionally, actions in various countries, particularly China, the United States and the United Kingdom, have created

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uncertainty with respect to how tariffs will affect the costs of some of our merchandise. The degree of our exposure is dependent on (among other things) the type of goods, rates imposed, and timing of the tariffs. Certain merchandise categories were impacted by inflation higher than what we have experienced in recent years. The impact to our net sales and gross margin is influenced in part by our merchandising and pricing strategies in response to cost increases. While these potential impacts are uncertain, they could have an adverse impact on our results.

We also achieve net sales growth by opening new warehouses. As our warehouse base grows, available and desirable sites become more difficult to secure, and square footage growth becomes a comparatively less substantial component of growth. The negative aspects of such growth, however, including lower initial operating profitability relative to existing warehouses and cannibalization of sales at existing warehouses when openings occur in existing markets, are continuing to decline in significance as they relate to the results of our total operations. Our rate of operating floor space square footage growth is generally higher in foreign markets, due to the smaller base in those markets, and we expect that to continue. Our e-commerce business growth, domestically and internationally, has also increased our sales but it generally has a lower gross margin percentage relative to our warehouse operations.

The membership format is an integral part of our business and has a significant effect on our profitability. This format is designed to reinforce member loyalty and provide continuing fee revenue. The extent to which we achieve growth in our membership base, increase the penetration of our Executive members, and sustain high renewal rates materially influences our profitability. Our paid membership growth rate may be adversely impacted when warehouse openings occur in existing markets as compared to new markets.

Our financial performance depends heavily on controlling costs. While we believe that we have achieved successes in this area, some significant costs are partially outside our control, particularly health care and utility expenses. With respect to the compensation of our employees, our philosophy is not to seek to minimize their wages and benefits. Rather, we believe that achieving our longer-term objectives of reducing employee turnover and enhancing employee satisfaction requires maintaining compensation levels that are better than the industry average for much of our workforce. This may cause us, for example, to absorb costs that other employers might seek to pass through to their workforces. Because our business operates on very low margins, modest changes in various items in the consolidated statements of income, particularly merchandise costs and selling, general and administrative expenses, can have substantial impacts on net income.

Our operating model is generally the same across our U.S., Canadian, and Other International operating segments (see Note 12 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report). Certain operations in the Other International segment have relatively higher rates of square footage growth, lower wage and benefit costs as a percentage of sales, less or no direct membership warehouse competition, or lack an e-commerce business.

In discussions of our consolidated operating results, we refer to the impact of changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar, which are references to the differences between the foreign-exchange rates we use to convert the financial results of our international operations from local currencies into U.S. dollars for financial reporting purposes. This impact of foreign-exchange rate changes is calculated based on the difference between the current period's currency exchange rates and that of the comparable prior period. The impact of changes in gasoline prices on net sales is calculated based on the difference between the current period's average price per gallon sold and that of the comparable prior period.

Our fiscal year ends on the Sunday closest to August 31. References to 2021, 2020, and 2019 relate to the 52-week fiscal years ended August 29, 2021, August 30, 2020, and September 1, 2019, respectively. Certain percentages presented are calculated using actual results prior to rounding. Unless otherwise noted, references to net income relate to net income attributable to Costco.

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Highlights for 2021 included:

•We opened 22 new warehouses, including 2 relocations: 12 net new in the U.S., 4 net new in our Canadian segment, and 4 new in our Other International segment, compared to 16 new warehouses, including 3 relocations in 2020;

•Net sales increased 18% to $192,052 driven by a 16% increase in comparable sales and sales at new warehouses opened in 2020 and 2021;

•Membership fee revenue increased 9% to $3,877, driven by sign-ups and upgrades to Executive membership;

•Gross margin percentage decreased seven basis points, driven primarily by a shift in sales penetration from our core merchandise categories to our warehouse ancillary and other businesses;

•SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales decreased 40 basis points, primarily due to leveraging increased sales and decreased incremental wages related to COVID-19;

•The effective tax rate in 2021 was 24.0% compared to 24.4% in 2020;

•Net income increased 25% to $5,007, or $11.27 per diluted share compared to $4,002, or $9.02 per diluted share in 2020;

•We paid a special cash dividend of $10.00 per share in December 2020 and in April 2021, increased the quarterly cash dividend from $0.70 to $0.79 per share totaling $5,748.

COVID-19

During 2021, our sales mix began returning to pre-pandemic levels. This included sales increases in non-foods and in many of our warehouse ancillary and other businesses, certain of which experienced closures or restrictions in 2020. COVID-related supply and logistics constraints have adversely affected some merchandise categories and are expected to do so for the foreseeable future.

We paid $515 in incremental wages during 2021 related to COVID-19. The incremental wage and benefit costs associated with COVID-19, which began on March 1, 2020 and ended on February 28, 2021, totaled approximately $825.

Effective March 1, 2021, we permanently increased wages for hourly and most salaried warehouse employees. The estimated annualized pre-tax cost is approximately $400. Additionally, in certain areas in the United States governments have mandated or are considering mandating extra pay for classes of employees that include our employees, which has and will result in higher costs.

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RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

Net Sales

_______________

(1)Excluding the impact of the revenue recognition standard for the year ended September 1, 2019.

Net Sales

Net sales increased $28,832 or 18% during 2021. The improvement was attributable to an increase in comparable sales of 16%, and sales at new warehouses opened in 2020 and 2021. While sales in all core merchandise categories increased, sales were particularly strong in non-foods. Sales increases were also strong in our warehouse ancillary and other businesses, predominantly e-commerce and gasoline. Certain merchandise categories were impacted by inflation higher than what we have experienced in recent years.

Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar positively impacted net sales by approximately $2,759, or 169 basis points, compared to 2020, attributable to our Canadian and Other International operations. Changes in gasoline prices positively impacted net sales by $1,636, or 100 basis points, compared to 2020, due to a 12% increase in the average price per gallon. The volume of gasoline sold increased approximately 10%, positively impacting net sales by $1,469, or 90 basis points.

Comparable Sales

Comparable sales increased 16% during 2021 and were positively impacted by increases in shopping frequency and average ticket. There was an increase of 44% in e-commerce comparable sales in 2021, driven by an increase of 80% in the first half of the year.

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Membership Fees

Membership fees increased 9% in 2021, driven by sign-ups and upgrades to Executive membership. Excluding the positive impact of changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar, membership fees increased 8%. At the end of 2021, our member renewal rates were 91% in the U.S. and Canada and 89% worldwide. Our renewal rate is a trailing calculation that captures renewals during the period seven to eighteen months prior to the reporting date. We account for membership fee revenue on a deferred basis, recognized ratably over the one-year membership period.

Gross Margin

The gross margin of our core merchandise categories (foods and sundries, non-foods and fresh foods), when expressed as a percentage of core merchandise sales (rather than total net sales), increased 23 basis points. This measure eliminates the impact of changes in sales penetration and gross margins from our warehouse ancillary and other businesses. The increase was across all categories, most significantly in non-foods.

Total gross margin percentage decreased seven basis points compared to 2020. Excluding the impact of gasoline price inflation on net sales in 2021, gross margin percentage was 11.22%, an increase of two basis points. This increase was due to a two basis point improvement in our core merchandise categories, predominantly non-foods, and in our warehouse ancillary and other businesses, largely e-commerce. The comparison was also positively impacted by a three basis point reserve on inventory recorded in 2020 with no such reserve this year. Gross margin percentage was negatively impacted three basis points due to increased 2% rewards and two basis points due to a LIFO charge for higher merchandise costs. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar positively impacted gross margin by approximately $301 in 2021.

Gross margin on a segment basis, when expressed as a percentage of the segment's own sales and excluding the impact of changes in gasoline prices on net sales (segment gross margin percentage), decreased in our U.S. segment, due to our warehouse ancillary and other businesses, our core merchandise categories, and the LIFO charge, partially offset by the reserve for certain inventory in 2020. Our Canadian and Other International segments increased, primarily due to our warehouse ancillary and other businesses and certain of our core merchandise categories. These increases were partially offset by increased 2% rewards.

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Selling, General and Administrative Expenses

SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales decreased 40 basis points compared to 2020. SG&A expenses as a percentage of net sales excluding the impact of gasoline price inflation was 9.69%, a decrease of 32 basis points. Warehouse operations and other businesses were lower by 24 basis points, largely attributable to payroll leveraging increased sales. Incremental wages as a result of COVID-19, which ended on February 28, 2021, were lower by eight basis points. Central operating costs were lower by five basis points. Stock compensation expense was lower by three basis points, and costs associated with the acquisition of Innovel were lower by one basis point. These decreases were offset by an increase of five basis points related to a partial reversal of a product tax assessment in 2020, as well as an increase of four basis points related to a write-off of certain information technology assets in the fourth quarter of 2021 that are no longer expected to be utilized as part of the modernization of our information systems. Changes in foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar increased our SG&A expenses by approximately $228 in 2021.

Preopening

Preopening expenses include startup costs for new warehouses and relocations, developments in new international markets, new manufacturing and distribution facilities, and expansions at existing warehouses and corporate facilities. Preopening expenses vary due to the number of warehouse and facility openings, the timing of the opening relative to our year-end, whether the warehouse is owned or leased, and whether the opening is in an existing, new or international market.

Interest Expense

Interest expense primarily relates to Senior Notes. For more information on our debt arrangements, refer to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

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Interest Income and Other, Net

The decrease in interest income in 2021 was primarily due to lower interest rates in the U.S. and Canada, partially offset by higher average cash and investment balances. Foreign-currency transaction gains, net include mark-to-market adjustments for forward foreign-exchange contracts and revaluation or settlement of monetary assets and liabilities by our Canadian and Other International operations. See Derivatives and Foreign Currency sections in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report. During 2020, other, net was impacted by a $36 charge related to the repayment of certain Senior Notes.

Provision for Income Taxes

The effective tax rate for 2021 included discrete net tax benefits of $163, including a benefit of $75 due to excess benefits from stock compensation, $70 related to the special dividend payable through our 401(k) plan, and $19 related to a reduction in the valuation allowance against certain deferred tax assets. Excluding these benefits, the tax rate was 26.4% for 2021.

LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

The following table summarizes our significant sources and uses of cash and cash equivalents:

Our primary sources of liquidity are cash flows generated from our operations, cash and cash equivalents, and short-term investments. Cash and cash equivalents and short-term investments were $12,175 and $13,305 at the end of 2021 and 2020, respectively. Of these balances, unsettled credit and debit card receivables represented approximately $1,816 and $1,636 at the end of 2021 and 2020, respectively. These receivables generally settle within four days. Cash and cash equivalents were positively impacted by a change in exchange rates of $46 and $70 in 2021 and 2020, respectively, and negatively impacted by $15 in 2019.

Material contractual obligations arising in the normal course of business primarily consist of purchase obligations, long-term debt and related interest payments, leases, and construction and land purchase obligations. See Notes 5 and 6 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report for amounts outstanding on August 29, 2021, related to debt and leases.

Purchase obligations consist of contracts primarily related to merchandise, equipment, and third-party services, the majority of which are due in the next 12 months. Construction and land purchase obligations consist of contracts primarily related to the development and opening of new and relocated warehouses, the majority of which (other than leases) are due in the next 12 months.

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Management believes that our cash and investment position and operating cash flows as well as capacity under existing and available credit agreements will be sufficient to meet our liquidity and capital requirements for the foreseeable future. We believe that our U.S. current and projected asset position is sufficient to meet our U.S. liquidity requirements.

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Net cash provided by operating activities totaled $8,958 in 2021, compared to $8,861 in 2020. Our cash flow provided by operations is primarily from net sales and membership fees. Cash flow used in operations generally consists of payments to merchandise suppliers, warehouse operating costs, including payroll and employee benefits, utilities, and credit and debit card processing fees. Cash used in operations also includes payments for income taxes. Changes in our net investment in merchandise inventories (the difference between merchandise inventories and accounts payable) is impacted by several factors, including how fast inventory is sold, the forward deployment of inventory to accelerate delivery times, payment terms with our suppliers, and early payments to obtain discounts from suppliers.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Net cash used in investing activities totaled $3,535 in 2021, compared to $3,891 in 2020, and is primarily related to capital expenditures. In 2020, we acquired Innovel (Costco Wholesale Logistics) and a minority interest in Navitus. Net cash flows from investing activities also includes purchases and maturities of short-term investments.

Capital Expenditures

Our primary requirements for capital are acquiring land, buildings, and equipment for new and remodeled warehouses. Capital is also required for information systems, manufacturing and distribution facilities, initial warehouse operations, and working capital. In 2021, we spent $3,588 on capital expenditures, and it is our current intention to spend approximately $3,800 to $4,200 during fiscal 2022. These expenditures are expected to be financed with cash from operations, existing cash and cash equivalents, and short-term investments. We opened 22 new warehouses, including two relocations, in 2021, and plan to open approximately up to 35 additional new warehouses, including five relocations, in 2022. We have experienced delays in real estate and construction activities due to COVID-19. There can be no assurance that current expectations will be realized and plans are subject to change upon further review of our capital expenditure needs or based on the current economic environment.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Net cash used in financing activities totaled $6,488 in 2021, compared to $1,147 in 2020. Cash flows used in financing activities primarily related to the payment of dividends, repurchases of common stock, and withholding taxes on stock-based awards.

In 2020, we issued $4,000 in aggregate principal amount of Senior Notes and repaid $3,200 of Senior Notes.

Stock Repurchase Programs

During 2021 and 2020, we repurchased 1,358,000 and 643,000 shares of common stock, at average prices of $364.39 and $308.45, respectively, totaling approximately $495 and $198, respectively. These amounts may differ from the stock repurchase balances in the accompanying consolidated statements of cash flows due to changes in unsettled stock repurchases at the end of each fiscal year. Purchases are made from time-to-time, as conditions warrant, in the open market or in block purchases and pursuant to plans under SEC Rule 10b5-1. Repurchased shares are retired, in accordance with the Washington Business Corporation Act. The remaining amount available to be purchased under our approved plan was $3,250 at the end of 2021.

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Dividends

Cash dividends declared in 2021 totaled $12.98 per share, as compared to $2.70 per share in 2020. Dividends in 2021 included a special dividend of $10.00 per share, resulting in an aggregate payment of approximately $4,430. In April 2021, the Board of Directors increased our quarterly cash dividend from $0.70 to $0.79 per share.

Bank Credit Facilities and Commercial Paper Programs

We maintain bank credit facilities for working capital and general corporate purposes. At August 29, 2021, we had borrowing capacity under these facilities of $1,050. Our international operations maintain $574 of the total borrowing capacity under bank credit facilities, of which $201 is guaranteed by the Company. Short-term borrowings outstanding under the bank credit facilities at the end of 2021 were immaterial, and there were none outstanding at the end of 2020.

The Company has letter of credit facilities, for commercial and standby letters of credit, totaling $235. The outstanding commitments under these facilities at the end of 2021 totaled $197, most of which were standby letters of credit which do not expire or have expiration dates within one year. The bank credit facilities have various expiration dates, most of which are within one year, and we generally intend to renew these facilities. The amount of borrowings available at any time under our bank credit facilities is reduced by the amount of standby and commercial letters of credit outstanding.

Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements

In the opinion of management, we have no off-balance sheet arrangements that have had or are reasonably likely to have a material current or future effect on our financial condition or financial statements.

Critical Accounting Estimates

The preparation of our consolidated financial statements in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (U.S. GAAP) requires that we make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and the disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reporting period. We base our estimates on historical experience and on assumptions that we believe to be reasonable, and we continue to review and evaluate these estimates. For further information on significant accounting policies, see discussion in Note 1 to the consolidated financial statements included in Item 8 of this Report.

Insurance/Self-insurance Liabilities

Claims for employee health-care benefits, workers’ compensation, general liability, property damage, directors’ and officers’ liability, vehicle liability, inventory loss, and other exposures are funded predominantly through self-insurance. Insurance coverage is maintained for certain risks to seek to limit exposures arising from very large losses. We use different risk management mechanisms, including a wholly-owned captive insurance subsidiary, and participate in a reinsurance program. Liabilities associated with the risks that we retain are not discounted and are estimated by using historical claims experience, demographic factors, severity factors, and other actuarial assumptions. The costs of claims are highly unpredictable and can fluctuate as a result of inflation rates, regulatory or legal changes, and unforeseen developments in claims over time. While we believe our estimates are reasonable and provide for a certain degree of coverage to account for these variables, actual claims and costs could differ significantly from recorded liabilities. Historically, adjustments to our estimates have not been material.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

We do not expect that any recently issued accounting pronouncements will have a material effect on our financial statements.

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