CENTURY ALUMINUM CO (CENX)

Item 7. Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

This Management’s Discussion and Analysis (“MD&A”) provides information that management believes is relevant to an assessment and understanding of the consolidated financial condition and results of operations of Century Aluminum Company and its subsidiaries (collectively, “Century,” the “Company,” “our” and “we”) and should be read in conjunction with the accompanying consolidated financial statements and related notes thereto in Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data and in Item 1A. Risk Factors. This MD&A contains “forward-looking statements” - See “Forward-Looking Statements” above. The following discussion and analysis are for the year ended December 31, 2024, compared with the same period in 2023 unless otherwise stated. For discussion and analysis of the year ended December 31, 2023, compared with the same period in 2022, please refer to "Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" included in Part II, Item 7. of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2023, filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the "SEC") on March 15, 2024.

Overview

We are a global producer of alumina and primary aluminum with production facilities in the United States. Iceland and Jamaica. Our primary aluminum smelters are concentrated in the U.S. and Iceland, while in Jamaica we maintain a 55% joint venture interest in the Jamalco alumina refinery, from which we off-take a commensurate amount of alumina production. The majority of our Jamalco off-take is consumed internally at our primary aluminum smelters in a vertical integration model. We also own a carbon anode production facility located in the Netherlands.

The key determinants of our results of operations and cash flow from operations are as follows:

•the price of primary aluminum, which is based on the London Metal Exchange ("LME") and other exchanges, plus any regional premiums and value-added product premiums;

•the cost of goods sold, the principal components of which are electrical power, alumina, carbon products, labor and other controllable costs, which in aggregate represent more than 76% of our cost of goods sold; and

•our production volume and product mix.

Section 45X of the Inflation Reduction Act

On October 24, 2024, the U.S. Treasury Department and the Internal Revenue Service issued final regulations implementing Section 45X of the Inflation Reduction Act, which provide guidance on rules taxpayers must satisfy to qualify for the tax credit. The government has incentivized the production of aluminum by offering a tax credit equal to 10% of eligible domestic production costs. Based on the final regulations, we have recognized a receivable and corresponding offset to cost of goods sold and selling, general and administrative expenses. Any changes to the final regulations as part of the U.S. Treasury Department's finalization of the regulations could result in a subsequent adjustment to the estimated credit as of December 31, 2024.

Acquisition of 55% interest in Jamalco

In May 2023, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Century Aluminum Jamaica Holdings, Inc., completed the acquisition of all the outstanding share capital of General Alumina Holdings Limited, the holder of a 55% interest in Jamalco, an unincorporated joint venture with the Government of Jamaica through its controlled entity Clarendon Alumina Production Limited ("CAP"). Jamalco is engaged in bauxite mining and alumina refining in Jamaica. The Company's wholly-owned subsidiary, General Alumina Jamaica Limited, is the managing partner of the Jamalco joint venture. Jamalco has alumina production capacity of approximately 1.4 million tonnes, and produced approximately 1.1 million tonnes of alumina in 2024 and approximately 1.0 million tonnes of alumina in 2023. Refer to Note 2. Acquisition of Jamalco for further information.

Jamalco Equipment Failure

In June 2023, Jamalco experienced a power disruption caused by damage to its power generation unit. The equipment failure resulted in a loss of production at Jamalco of approximately 84,000 tonnes for the year ended December 31, 2023. The impact of the equipment failure on gross margin was approximately $30.4 million. Despite returning the equipment to full capacity as of the end of October 2023, we continued to see some inefficiencies into the first quarter of 2024. We are actively engaged with our insurance carriers in connection with this equipment failure to determine the specific amount of coverage available to us, including any applicable deductibles.

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Hurricane Beryl

In early July 2024, Hurricane Beryl temporarily impacted our operations in Jamaica. Jamalco’s production facilities escaped significant damage, but the port facility was impacted by the storm, where a portion of the alumina conveyor was damaged. Jamalco's bauxite mining and alumina production joint venture returned to full production in July 2024. Jamalco secured alternative port arrangements to allow for alumina shipments to its customers while the repairs to the conveyor were ongoing. In September 2024, we resumed normal shipping operations at Jamalco’s Rocky Point port following the completion of repairs to the port.

Hawesville

In August 2022 we fully curtailed production at the Hawesville facility. We continue to explore all options related to the Hawesville facility. See Item 1A. Risk Factors.

For the year ended December 31, 2024, we incurred curtailment charges of $6.8 million primarily to maintain the idle facility. These charges were partially offset by income related to scrap and materials sales of $0.5 million. Comparatively, for the year ended December 31, 2023, we incurred curtailment charges of $16.6 million, including $9.0 million related to excess capacity charges. These charges were partially offset by income related to scrap and material sales of $1.7 million.

Mt. Holly Power Contract

On October 27, 2023, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Century Aluminum of South Carolina, Inc. ("CASC"), entered into an agreement with the South Carolina Public Service Authority (also known as Santee Cooper) for a new, three-year power contract for Century's Mt. Holly aluminum smelter. The contract, which runs through December 2026, provides for 295MW of electric power at service-based rates and provides sufficient power to allow Mt. Holly to operate at its current production capacity, as well as an option to take additional power to support any future restart of the remaining 25% of production capacity.

Pricing of aluminum

The overall price of primary aluminum consists of three components: (i) the base commodity price, which is based on quoted prices on the LME and other exchanges; plus (ii) any regional premium (e.g., the Midwest premium for metal sold in the United States ("MWP") and the European Duty Paid premium for metal sold into Europe); plus (iii) any value-added product premium. Each of these price components has its own drivers and variability.

The price of aluminum is influenced by a number of factors, including global supply-demand balance, inventory levels, speculative activities by market participants, production activities by producers, geopolitical and economic conditions, as well as production costs in major production regions. These factors can be highly variable and difficult to predict which can lead to significant volatility in the price of aluminum. Increases or decreases in primary aluminum prices result in variability in our revenues (assuming all other factors are unchanged). From time to time, we may seek to manage our exposure to fluctuations in the LME price of primary aluminum and/or associated regional premiums through financial instruments designed to limit our downside price risk. Information regarding financial contracts is included in Note 20. Derivatives and risks affiliated with such financial contracts are disclosed specifically in Item 1A. Risk Factors.

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The historic volatility of the price of aluminum is reflected in the chart below:

During 2024, global, macroeconomic trends continued to impact global LME inventory levels which remain near all-time lows. Low inventory levels, challenged aluminum supply growth and improving global demand for aluminum all led to a supportive pricing environment for aluminum in 2024. The following table summarizes the average price for primary aluminum per tonne for the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022.

Energy, Key Supplies and Raw Materials

Our operating costs are significantly impacted by changes in the prices of the materials used in the production of aluminum, including alumina, electrical power and carbon products. These costs may be subject to increasing inflationary pressures, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Because we sell our products based principally on the LME price for primary aluminum, regional premiums and value-added product premiums, we are unable to pass increased production costs on to our customers. Although we attempt to mitigate the effects of price fluctuations from time to time through the use of various fixed-price commitments, financial instruments and also by negotiating LME-based pricing in some of our raw materials and electrical power contracts, these efforts also limit our ability to take advantage of favorable changes in the market prices for primary aluminum or raw materials and may affect our financial position, results of operations and cash flows.

Alumina and electrical power represent the two largest components of our cost of goods sold. As a result, the availability of these cost components at competitive prices is critical to the profitability of our operations. The pricing under our alumina

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supply contracts varies from contract to contract. A major portion of our alumina requirements is indexed to the price of primary aluminum, which provides a natural hedge to one of our largest production costs. We also purchase alumina based on a published alumina index and at fixed prices. The alumina price is influenced by a number of factors, including global supply-demand balance, natural disasters and weather events, and other factors outside of our control. Additionally, with our acquisition of a 55% interest in Jamalco, we secured a predictable, long-term supply of alumina and achieved increased transparency and control of our supply chain. The average market alumina index price as a percentage of market LME price per tonne was 21% for 2024, 15% for 2023 and 13% for 2022.

Electrical power is our other largest operating cost. Currently, our Hawesville and Sebree plants receive all of their electricity requirements under market-based power agreements. Market-based energy prices are driven in large part by the price of coal, natural gas, and other fuel sources, weather influenced reservoir or generation levels for wind, solar and hydro production and weather-influenced electric loads. Extreme weather events, such as that experienced in mid-February 2021 throughout the United States, the low rain levels experienced in Nordic regions during winter 2021, 2022 and 2024, can result in low generation, power outages and/or significant increases in demand, which may result in significant increased power costs incurred in our operations. In December 2023 and August 2024, and again a year later, continued dry and cold conditions led the largest hydro energy company to issue partial curtailment orders across their industrial customers, including our Grundartangi smelter. The end of these curtailments remain subject to weather patterns and reservoir levels in Iceland and other factors. Additionally, extreme geopolitical events, such as the on-going Russia-Ukraine conflict, which led to the cut-off of natural gas supply to Western Europe and increased exports of U.S natural gas as result, may result in significant power costs globally.

Our Mt. Holly plant has a power supply agreement with Santee Cooper that runs through December 2026. Under this power supply agreement, 100% of Mt. Holly’s current electrical power requirements are supplied from Santee Cooper’s generation at cost of service based rates.

In Iceland, approximately 70% of the power requirements for our Grundartangi plant are fully-indexed to the price of primary aluminum, which provides a natural hedge of one of our largest production costs. Approximately 30% of the power is priced at a fixed price with an additional LME-linked component.

Production/Shipment Volumes

Shipment volume is another key determinant of our financial results. Fluctuations in production and shipment volumes, other than through acquisitions or expansions, are generally small period over period. Any adverse changes in the conditions that affect shipment volumes could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and cash flows.

The following table sets forth, for the periods indicated, the shipment volumes and revenues for primary aluminum shipments:

(1)Excludes scrap aluminum, purchased aluminum and alumina sales

Results of Operations

Year Ended December 31, 2024 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2023

Net sales: Net sales increased by $34.9 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2024, compared to the same period in 2023, primarily due to higher third-party alumina sales of $125.5 million attributable to a full year of Jamalco

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operations and higher LME and regional premium price realizations of $6.0 million. These changes are offset by unfavorable aluminum volume and mix of $96.6 million due to lower shipments from Mt. Holly and Grundartangi and lower realized premiums for value-added products.

Gross profit (loss): Gross profit increased by $93.1 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2024, compared to the same period in 2023, primarily driven by favorable raw material price realization of $125.1 million, $33.2 million attributable to the Inflation Reduction Act manufacturing production credit, which includes $21.3 million related to 2023 costs recognized upon the issuance of final regulations published in the third quarter of 2024, and favorable power price realization of $20.8 million. The changes were partially offset by unfavorable volume and product mix of $53.0 million and $28.9 million of additional operating expenses. Additional operating expenses were driven by increased labor costs to scale up the completed Iceland casthouse project and higher maintenance costs at Mt. Holly required to maintain stability.

Selling, general and administrative expenses: Selling, general and administrative expenses increased $12.5 million in 2024 compared to 2023, primarily due to increases in share-based compensation due to the increase in the Company's stock price year over year and engineering costs associated with evaluating a new smelter project. See Note 14. Share-based compensation to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Net gain (loss) on forward and derivative contracts: In 2024, we recognized gains of $2.0 million compared to losses of $61.8 million in 2023 primarily driven by lower settlements on the Nord Pool contracts than expected in 2023. See Note 20. Derivatives to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Bargain purchase gain: We finalized the purchase accounting as of March 31, 2024 related to the acquisition of General Alumina Holdings Limited and subsidiaries, which was acquired on May 2, 2023, and recognized $245.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2024.

Income tax (expense) benefit: We have a valuation allowance recorded against our net U.S. and Jamaican deferred tax assets, and a portion of our Icelandic deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2024. We recognized $3.2 million income tax expense in 2024 as compared to an income tax benefit of $14.6 million in 2023. The period-to-period change is primarily related to foreign results in the current period. See Note 16. Income Taxes to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Liquidity

Our principal sources of liquidity are available cash and cash flow from operations. We also have access to our existing U.S. and Iceland revolving credit facilities (collectively, the "revolving credit facilities") and have raised capital in the past through public equity and debt markets. We regularly explore various other financing alternatives. Our principal uses of cash

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include the funding of operating costs (including post-retirement benefits), debt service requirements, capital expenditures, investments in our growth activities and in related businesses, working capital and other general corporate requirements.

We believe that cash provided from operations and financing activities will be adequate to cover our operations and business needs over the next 12 months. As of December 31, 2024, we had cash and cash equivalents of approximately $32.9 million and unused availability under our revolving credit facilities of $211.6 million (including $80.0 million under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement referred to below). Our cash and cash equivalents and unused availability under our revolving credit facilities comprise our liquidity position, which was $244.5 million as of December 31, 2024.

Our material contractual obligations consist of purchase obligations under long-term alumina and power contracts, debt and related interest payments and operating leases. See Note 6. Leases, Note 8. Debt, Note 17. Commitments and Contingencies and Note 18. Asset Retirement Obligations ("ARO") to the accompanying consolidated financial statements for additional information regarding future maturities of debt and operating leases and obligations under power contracts.

Available Cash

Our available cash and cash equivalents balance at December 31, 2024 was $32.9 million compared to $88.8 million at December 31, 2023.

Sources and Uses of Cash

Our cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities as reflected in the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows for the twelve months ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022 are summarized below:

Year Ended December 31, 2024 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2023

The change in net cash used in operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2024 compared to cash provided by operating activities for the year ended December 31, 2023 was driven by a increase in net working capital of $195.2 million primarily associated with increased inventory levels attributable to timing of shipments of fourth quarter production and higher uncollected receivables, including amounts related to the Manufacturing Credit Receivable, include $21.3 million related to 2023 costs recognized upon the issuance of final regulations published in the third quarter of 2024. These increases were partially offset by a decrease in accounts payable due to timing of payments. Additionally, this variance was partially offset by a $373.0 million increase in net income between periods, primarily attributable to the recognition of the bargain purchase gain of $245.9 million related to the Jamalco acquisition and reduction in unrealized losses on derivative contracts in the current year.

The increase in net cash used in investing activities during 2024 was primarily due to lower cash inflows from proceeds of sales of property, plant and equipment during 2024 compared to 2023. The Company received cash inflows of $25.7 million from the Mt. Holly land sale in 2023. Additionally, cash outflows related to capital expenditures decreased by $12.7 million due to lower expenditures related to the Grundartangi casthouse project completed in the second quarter of 2024.

The change in net cash used in financing activities in 2024 compared to net cash provided by financing activities in 2023 was primarily due to net borrowings on our revolving credit facilities and reduced repayments of the Iceland Term Facility in 2024. These changes were partially offset by the repayment of carbon credits and reduced borrowings under the Grundartangi Casthouse Facility.

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Availability under Our Credit Facilities

Our U.S. revolving credit facility, dated May 2018 (as amended, the "U.S. revolving credit facility"), previously provided for borrowings of up to $220.0 million, including up to $110.0 million under a letter of credit sub-facility. In June 2022, we entered into a Fourth Amendment to our existing $220.0 million U.S. revolving credit facility, increasing the maximum capacity from $220.0 million to $250.0 million, including up to $150.0 million under a letter of credit sub-facility. The U.S. revolving credit facility matures in June 2027. Any letters of credit issued and outstanding under the U.S. revolving credit facility reduce our borrowing availability on a dollar-for-dollar basis.

We have also entered into, through our wholly-owned subsidiary Nordural Grundartangi ehf ("Grundartangi"), a revolving credit facility, dated November 2013, as amended (the "Iceland revolving credit facility") which originally provided for borrowings of up to $50.0 million in the aggregate. On February 4, 2022, we amended the Iceland revolving credit facility and increased the facility amount to $80.0 million in the aggregate. On September 28, 2022, we further amended the Iceland revolving credit facility and increased the facility amount to $100.0 million in the aggregate. The Iceland revolving credit facility matures December 2026.

The availability of funds under our credit facilities is limited by a specified borrowing base consisting of certain accounts receivable, inventory and qualified cash deposits which meet the lenders' eligibility criteria. Increases in the price of aluminum and/or restarts of previously curtailed operations, for example, increase our borrowing base by increasing our accounts receivable and inventory balances; decreases in the price of aluminum and/or curtailments of production capacity would decrease our borrowing base by reducing our accounts receivable and inventory balances. As of December 31, 2024, our U.S. revolving credit facility had a borrowing base of $149.3 million, $20.0 million in outstanding borrowings, and $63.7 million in letters of credit outstanding. Of the outstanding letters of credit, $22.9 million are related to raw materials, $13.7 million are related to our power commitments, and the remaining $27.1 million are primarily for the purpose of securing certain secured debt and workers’ compensation commitments. As of December 31, 2024, our Iceland revolving credit facility had a borrowing base of $100.0 million and $34.0 million of outstanding borrowings.

As of December 31, 2024, our credit facilities (including the Vlissingen Facility Agreement referred to below) had $211.6 million of net availability after consideration of our outstanding borrowings and letters of credit. We may borrow and make repayments under our revolving credit facilities in the ordinary course based on a number of factors, including the timing of payments from our customers and payments to our suppliers.

Our credit facilities contain customary covenants, including restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, indebtedness, affiliate transactions, liens, dividends and distributions, dispositions of collateral, investments and prepayments of indebtedness, including in the U.S. revolving credit facility, a springing financial covenant that requires us to maintain a fixed charge coverage ratio of at least 1.0 to 1.0 any time availability under the U.S. revolving credit facility is less than or equal to $25.0 million, or 10% of the borrowing base but not less than $17.9 million. We intend to maintain availability to comply with these levels any time we would not meet the ratio, which could limit our ability to access the full amount of our availability under our U.S. revolving credit facility. Our Iceland revolving credit facility contains covenants that require Grundartangi to maintain a minimum equity ratio. The dividend and distribution limitations are applicable to certain of our subsidiaries only in the case of an event of default or failure to comply with certain financial covenants. As of December 31, 2024, we and our subsidiaries were in compliance with all such covenants or maintained availability above such covenant triggers.

Grundartangi Casthouse Facility

On November 2, 2021, in connection with the casthouse project at Grundartangi, we entered into an eight-year Term Facility Agreement with Arion Bank hf, to provide for borrowings up to $130.0 million (the “Casthouse Facility”). Under the Casthouse Facility, repayments of principal amounts will be made in equal quarterly installments equal to 1.739% of the principal amount, the first payment occurred in July 2024, with the remaining 60% of the principal amount to be paid no later than the termination date. The Casthouse Facility will mature in January 2030. The Casthouse Facility bears interest at a rate equal to a base rate plus the applicable margin as set forth in the agreement. As of December 31, 2024, there were $123.2 million in borrowings outstanding under the Casthouse Facility.

The Casthouse Facility also contains customary covenants, including restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, indebtedness, preservation of assets, and dispositions of assets and contains a covenant that requires Grundartangi to maintain a minimum equity ratio. As of December 31, 2024, we were in compliance with all such covenants.

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Senior Notes and Convertible Senior Notes

We have $250.0 million principal of senior secured notes that mature on April 1, 2028, unless earlier refinanced in accordance with their terms. Interest on the 2028 Notes is payable semi-annually on April 1 and October 1 of each year, beginning on October 1, 2021, at a rate of 7.5% per year. The indenture governing the 2028 Notes contains customary covenants which may limit our ability, and the ability of certain of our subsidiaries, to: (i) incur additional debt; (ii) incur additional liens; (iii) pay dividends or make distributions in respect of capital stock; (iv) purchase or redeem capital stock; (v) make investments or certain other restricted payments; (vi) sell assets; (vii) issue or sell stock of certain subsidiaries; (viii) enter into transactions with shareholders or affiliates; and (ix) effect a consolidation or merger. As of December 31, 2024, we were in compliance with all such covenants or maintained availability above such covenant triggers or maintained availability above such covenant triggers.

In April 2021, we issued $86.3 million in aggregate principal amount of Convertible Notes due May 1, 2028, unless earlier converted, repurchased or redeemed. The principal included the full exercise of the option by the initial purchasers of the Convertible Notes to purchase $11.3 million of additional principal amount. The Convertible Notes bear interest semi-annually in arrears on May 1 and November 1 of each year, beginning on November 1, 2021, at a rate of 2.75% per annum in cash.

Iceland Term Facility

Our wholly-owned subsidiary, Grundartangi, entered into a Term Facility Agreement with Arion Bank hf, dated September 2022, (the "Iceland Term Facility") to provide for borrowings up to €13.6 million. Repayments of principal amounts were made in equal monthly installments, the first payment occurring in February 2023, with the remainder of the principal amount paid in January 2024. Borrowings under the Iceland Term Facility bore interest at a rate equal to 3.2% plus EUR EURIBOR 1 month as published by the European Money Markets Institute. As of December 31, 2024, the Iceland Term Facility has been repaid in full and has terminated pursuant to its terms.

Vlissingen Credit Facility

On December 9, 2022, Vlissingen entered into a $90.0 million Facility Agreement with Glencore International AG, which was amended and extended on October 1, 2024 (as amended, the "Vlissingen Credit Facility"). The availability period for borrowings under the Vlissingen Credit Facility was extended by two years and now ends on December 2, 2026. Pursuant to the terms of the Vlissingen Credit Facility, Vlissingen may borrow from time to time up to $90 million in one or more loans at either (i) a fixed interest rate equal to 8.75% per annum (the "Fixed Rate"), or (ii) a variable interest rate equal to the 1-month SOFR rate plus 3.687 percentage points, subject to an absolute maximum level of 9.00% and an absolute minimum level of 7.00% (the "Variable Rate"). The Fixed Rate is only applicable to borrowings made on or before December 1, 2024, after which the Variable Rate shall apply to all borrowings under the Vlissingen Credit Facility. Amounts drawn, if any, under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement are expected to be used for general corporate and working capital purposes of Century and its subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2024, there were $10.0 million in outstanding borrowings under the Vlissingen Credit Facility.

The obligations under the Vlissingen Credit Facility are secured by liens on the ground lease on which Vlissingen’s facilities are located, Vlissingen’s moveable assets, financial assets, receivables and other assets, and Vlissingen’s shares. The Vlissingen Credit Facility contains customary covenants, including with respect to mergers, guarantees and preservation and dispositions of assets. As of December 31, 2024, we were in compliance with all such covenants.

Supplemental Guarantor Financial Information

The Company has filed a Registration Statement on Form S-3 (the "Universal Shelf Registration Statement") with the SEC pursuant to which the Company may, from time to time, offer an indeterminate amount of securities, which may include securities that are guaranteed by certain of the Company's subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2024, we have not issued any debt securities pursuant to the Universal Shelf Registration Statement. However, any securities that we may issue in the future may limit our ability, and the ability of certain of our subsidiaries, to pay dividends or make distributions in respect of capital stock.

"Guarantor Subsidiaries" refers to all of our material domestic subsidiaries except for Nordural US LLC, Century Aluminum Development LLC, Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. and Century Aluminum Jamaica Holdings, Inc. The Guarantor Subsidiaries are 100% owned by Century. All guarantees will be full and unconditional; all guarantees will be joint and several. Our foreign subsidiaries, together with Nordural US LLC, Century Aluminum Development LLC, Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. and Century Aluminum Jamaica Holdings, Inc. are collectively referred to as the "Non-

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Guarantor Subsidiaries." We allocate corporate expenses or income to our subsidiaries and charge interest on certain intercompany balances.

The following summarized financial information of both the Company and the Guarantor Subsidiaries ("Guarantors") is presented on a combined basis. Intercompany balances and transactions between the Company and the Guarantors have been eliminated and the summarized financial information does not reflect investments of the Company or the Guarantors in the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries. The Company’s or Guarantors’ amounts due from, amounts due to, and transactions with the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries are disclosed below:

As of December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, an intercompany receivable due to the Company and Guarantors from the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries totaled $40.4 million and $48.7 million, respectively, and an intercompany non-current loan due to the Company from the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries totaled $358.1 million and $384.9 million, respectively. As of December 31, 2023, an intercompany current loan to the Company from the Non-Guarantors totaled $2.9 million. There was no intercompany current loan as of December 31, 2024.

Contingent Commitments

We have a contingent obligation in connection with the “unwind” of a contractual arrangement between Century Aluminum Kentucky ("CAKY"), Big Rivers and a third party and the execution of a long-term cost-based power contract with Kenergy, a member of a cooperative of Big Rivers, in July 2009. This contingent obligation consists of the aggregate payments made to Big Rivers by the third party on CAKY’s behalf in excess of the agreed upon base amount under the long-term cost-based power contract with Kenergy. As of December 31, 2024, the principal and accrued interest for the contingent obligation was $32.3 million, which was fully offset by a derivative asset. We may be required to make installment payments for the contingent obligation in the future. These payments are contingent based on the LME price of primary aluminum and the level of Hawesville’s operations. Based on the LME forward market at December 31, 2024 and our expected level of Hawesville's operations, we believe that we will not be required to make payments on the contingent obligation during the term of the agreement, which expires in 2028. There can be no assurance that circumstances will not change thus accelerating the timing of such payments.

Employee Benefit Plan Contributions

In 2013, we entered into a settlement agreement with the Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation (the "PBGC") regarding an alleged "cessation of operations" at our Ravenswood facility (the "PBGC Settlement Agreement"). Pursuant to the terms of the PBGC Settlement Agreement, we agreed to make additional contributions (above any minimum required contributions) to our defined benefit pension plans totaling approximately $17.4 million. Under certain circumstances, in periods of lower primary aluminum prices relative to our cost of operations, we were able to defer one or more of these payments, provided that we provide the PBGC with acceptable security for such deferred payments. We historically elected to defer certain payments under the PBGC Settlement Agreement and provided the PBGC with the appropriate security. On October 1, 2021, we amended the PBGC Settlement Agreement (the "Amended PBGC Settlement Agreement") such that we removed the deferral mechanism and agreed to contribute approximately $2.4 million per year to our defined benefit pension plans for a total of approximately $9.6 million, over four years beginning on November 30, 2022 and ending on November 30, 2025, subject to

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acceleration if certain terms and conditions are met in such amendment. As of December 31, 2024, we have made contributions of $7.2 million related to the Amended PBGC Settlement Agreement.

Section 232 Aluminum Tariff

In March 2018, the U.S. implemented a 10% tariff on imported primary aluminum products into the U.S. These tariffs are intended to protect U.S. national security and incentivize the restart of primary aluminum production in the U.S., reducing reliance on imports and ensuring that domestic producers, like Century, can supply all the aluminum necessary for critical industries and national defense. In addition to primary aluminum products, the tariffs also cover certain other semi-finished products. All imports that directly compete with our products are covered by the tariff, with the exception of imports from Australia, Canada and Mexico. Additionally, primary aluminum imports from Argentina are allowed up to an annual quota limit of 169,000 metric tonnes, the first 18,000 metric tonnes of imports from the European Union and the first 900 metric tonnes of imports from the United Kingdom are also allowed duty free. Imports that receive a product exclusion from the Department of Commerce may also enter the US duty free. In July 2022, the International Trade Commission (ITC) initiated a review of the Section 301 and 232 duties as required by law every four years.

In March 2023, the ITC submitted a report to the United States Congress entitled, 'Economic Impact of Section 232 and 301 Tariffs on U.S. Industries,' in which the ITC found that the tariffs increased the production of domestic aluminum while causing prices to increase by less than two percent.

In February 2025, President Trump issued a new Presidential Proclamation directing the tariff rate on imported primary aluminum to be increased from 10% to 25% and for all existing country exemptions or product exclusion to be ended, in each case effective March 12, 2025. Accordingly, we expect that effective March 12, 2025, all imports that directly compete with our products will be covered by the tariff. We expect that as a result of these changes to the Section 232 tariff program, the Midwest Premium will increase, which we expect will have a material positive impact on our financial position and results of operations.

Section 301 Tariffs

On May 22, 2024, the United States Trade Representative (USTR) issued a proposal (the “Proposal”) to implement new tariffs on certain items and increase existing tariffs on other items imported from China pursuant to USTR’s authority under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974. The new and increased tariffs were adopted pursuant to the USTR’s authority to investigate unfair trade barriers and impose measures to counteract a foreign country’s unfair or discriminatory trade practices. Under the Proposal, tariffs on aluminum imported from China are expected to increase to 25% from the current 7.5% tariff imposed in 2018. The increased tariff is in addition to the 10% tariff imposed under Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act. The new and increased Section 301 tariffs are only applicable to imports with China as the country of origin.

Other Items

In August 2022, the IRA became law. The IRA provides for substantial tax credits and incentives for the development of critical minerals (including aluminum), renewable energy, clean fuels, electric vehicles, and supporting infrastructure, among other provisions. Section 45X of the IRA contains a production tax credit equal to 10% of certain eligible production costs, including, without limitation, labor, energy, depreciation and amortization and overhead expenses. On October 24, 2024, the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service released final rules to provide guidance on the production tax credit requirements under Internal Revenue Code Section 45X (the “Final Regulations”). The Final Regulations provide guidance on rules that taxpayers must satisfy to qualify for the Section 45X tax credit. For the year ended December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, respectively, we recognized $89.7 million and $56.5 million as a reduction in cost of goods sold and $2.9 million and $2.8 million as a reduction in Selling, general and administrative expenses within the Consolidated Statements of Operations, resulting in an equally offsetting receivable. As of December 31, 2024 and December 31, 2023, respectively, we recognized a current Manufacturing credit receivable of $81.5 million and $59.3 million, and as of December 31, 2024 we recognized a non-current Manufacturing credit receivable of $70.4 million on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

On January 10, 2025, the Company entered into a Cooperative Agreement with the DOE’s Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations for up to $500 million in Bipartisan Infrastructure Law and Inflation Reduction Act (“Inflation Reduction Act”) funding. With the help of this funding, we plan to build the first new U.S. primary aluminum smelter in 50 years at a site within the Ohio/Mississippi River Basins. See Item 1A. Risk Factors

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In early July 2024, Hurricane Beryl temporarily impacted our operations in Jamaica. Jamalco’s production facilities escaped significant damage, but the port facility was impacted by the storm, where a portion of the alumina conveyor was damaged. Jamalco's bauxite mining and alumina production joint venture returned to full production in July 2024. Jamalco secured alternative port arrangements to allow for alumina shipments to its customers while the repairs to the conveyor were ongoing. In September 2024, we resumed normal shipping operations at Jamalco’s Rocky Point port following the completion of repairs to the port.

On January 17, 2023, our wholly owned subsidiary, Mt. Holly Commerce Park LLC, entered into a binding agreement, subject to ordinary course conditions, to sell approximately 133 acres of land for approximately $28.5 million. On September 12, 2023, the Mt. Holly Land Sale Agreement was completed at a revised purchase price of $25.7 million. The proceeds from this sale are restricted to be used on capital expenditures. We previously formed the commerce park, located near our Mt. Holly smelter, to develop excess land at the site and to assist the county with bringing additional business and commerce to the area.

During 2021, we announced plans for construction of a new billet casthouse at Grundartangi. The Grundartangi casthouse project began in late 2021 and is primarily funded through the Casthouse Facility. The project was completed and began production in 2024.

In 2011, our Board of Directors approved a $60.0 million common stock repurchase program and subsequently increased this program by $70.0 million in the first quarter of 2015. Under the program, Century is authorized to repurchase up to $130.0 million of our outstanding shares of common stock, from time to time, on the open market at prevailing market prices, in block trades or otherwise. The timing and amount of any shares repurchased will be determined by our management based on its evaluation of market conditions, the trading price of our common stock and other factors. We made no repurchases during the years ended 2024, 2023, and 2022. As of December 31, 2024, we had $43.7 million remaining under the repurchase program authorization. The repurchase program may be expanded, suspended or discontinued by our Board, in its sole discretion, at any time.

In November 2009, Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. ("CAWV") filed a class action complaint for declaratory judgment against the United Steel, Paper and Forestry, Rubber, Manufacturing, Energy, Allied Industrial and Service Workers International Union ("USW"), the USW’s local and certain CAWV retirees, individually and as class representatives ("CAWV Retirees"), seeking a declaration of CAWV’s rights to modify/terminate retiree medical benefits. Later in November 2009, the USW and representatives of a retiree class filed a separate suit against CAWV, Century Aluminum Company, Century Aluminum Master Welfare Benefit Plan, and various John Does with respect to the foregoing. On August 18, 2017, the District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia approved a settlement agreement in respect of these actions, pursuant to which, CAWV agreed to make payments into a trust for the benefit of the CAWV Retirees in the aggregate amount of $23.0 million over the course of ten years. Upon approval of the settlement, we paid $5.0 million to the aforementioned trust in September 2017 and agreed to pay the remaining amounts under the settlement agreement in annual increments of $2.0 million for nine years. At December 31, 2024, we had $2.0 million in other current liabilities and $1.6 million in other liabilities related to this agreement.

We are a defendant in several actions relating to various aspects of our business. While it is impossible to predict the ultimate disposition of any litigation, we do not believe that any of these lawsuits, either individually or in the aggregate, will have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations or liquidity. See Note 17. Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Capital Resources

We intend to finance our future capital expenditures from available cash, cash flow from operations and if necessary, borrowings under our existing revolving credit facilities. For major investment projects, we would likely seek financing from various capital and loan markets and may potentially pursue the formation of strategic alliances. We may be unable, however, to issue additional debt or equity securities, or enter into other financing arrangements on attractive terms, or at all, due to a number of factors including a lack of demand, unfavorable pricing, poor economic conditions, unfavorable interest rates, or our financial condition or credit rating at the time. Future uncertainty in the U.S. and international markets and economies may adversely affect our liquidity, our ability to access the debt or capital markets and our financial condition.

Capital expenditures incurred for the year ended December 31, 2024 were $82.3 million, including expenditures related to the Jamalco port repair and expenditures of $37.2 million associated with the Grundartangi casthouse project. We estimate our total capital spending in 2025 will be approximately $70 to $80 million related to our ongoing investment and sustainability projects at our plants. This amount includes $40.0 million, representing investments in our Jamalco facility.

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Critical Accounting Estimates

Our significant accounting policies are described in Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements. The preparation of the financial statements requires that management make judgments, assumptions and estimates in applying these accounting policies. Those judgments are normally based on knowledge and experience about past and current events and on assumptions about future events. Critical accounting estimates require management to make assumptions about matters that are highly uncertain at the time of the estimate and a change in these estimates may have a material impact on our financial position or results of operations. Significant judgments and estimates made by our management include expenses and liabilities related to inventories, pensions and other postretirement benefits ("OPEB"), deferred tax assets and property, plant and equipment. Our management has discussed the development and selection of these critical accounting estimates with the audit committee of our Board of Directors and the Audit Committee has reviewed our disclosure.

Inventories

Our inventories are stated at lower of cost or net realizable value ("NRV").

Our estimate of the market value of our inventories involves establishing a net realizable value for both finished goods and the components of inventory that will be converted to finished goods, raw materials and work in process. This requires management to use its judgment when making assumptions about future selling prices and the costs to complete our inventory during the period in which it will be sold.

Our assumptions are subject to inherent uncertainties given the volatility surrounding the market price for primary aluminum sales and the market price for our major inputs, alumina and electrical power.

Although we believe that the assumptions used to estimate the market value of our inventory are reasonable, actual market conditions at the time our inventory is sold may be more or less favorable than management’s current estimates.

Pension and Other Postretirement Benefit Liabilities

We sponsor several pension and OPEB plans. Our liabilities under these defined benefit plans are determined using methodologies that involve several actuarial assumptions, the most significant of which are the discount rate and the long-term rate of return on plan assets. We review our actuarial assumptions on an annual basis and make modifications to the assumptions when appropriate.

Discount Rate Selection

We select a discount rate for purposes of measuring obligations under defined benefit plans by matching cash flows separately for each plan to the yields on high-quality zero coupon bonds. We use the Ryan Above Median Yield Curve (the "Ryan Curve"). We believe the projected cash flows used to determine the Ryan Curve rate provide a good approximation of the timing and amounts of our defined benefit payments under our plans and no adjustment to the Ryan Curve rate has been made.

A change of a half percentage point in the discount rate for our defined benefit plans would have the following effects on our obligations under these plans as of December 31, 2024:

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Long-term Rate of Return on Plan Assets Assumption

Our expected long-term rate of return on plan assets is derived from our asset allocation strategies and anticipated future long-term performance of individual asset classes. Our analysis gives consideration to recent plan performance and historical returns; however, the assumptions are primarily based on long-term, prospective rates of return. The weighted average long-term rate of return on plan assets for our defined benefit pension plans is 7.28% for 2024.

Based on information provided by independent actuaries and other relevant sources, the Company believes that the assumptions used to estimate expenses, assets and liabilities of pensions and other postretirement benefits are reasonable; however, changes in these assumptions could impact the Company’s financial position, results of operations or cash flows.

Deferred Income Tax Assets

We regularly assess the likelihood that deferred tax assets will be recovered from future taxable income. To the extent we believe that it is more likely than not that a deferred tax asset will not be realized, a valuation allowance is established. The amount of a valuation allowance is based upon our best estimate of our ability to realize the net deferred tax assets. We have a valuation allowance of $504.4 million recorded against our net U.S. and Jamaican deferred tax assets and a portion of our Icelandic deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2024.

Property, Plant and Equipment Impairment

We review our property, plant and equipment for impairment whenever events or circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of these assets (asset group) may not be recoverable. The carrying amount of the assets (asset group) is not recoverable if it exceeds the sum of the undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the assets (asset group). In that case, an impairment loss would be recognized for the amount by which the carrying amount exceeds the fair value of the assets (asset group), with the fair value determined using a discounted cash flow calculation. These estimates of future cash flows include management’s assumptions about the expected use of the assets (asset group), the remaining useful life, expenditures to maintain the service potential, market and cost assumptions.

Determination as to whether and how much an asset is impaired involves significant management judgment involving highly uncertain matters, including estimating the future sales volumes, future selling prices and estimated raw material and conversion costs, alternative uses for the asset, and estimated proceeds from the disposal of the asset.

Business Combination

We account for business combinations using the acquisition method of accounting, which requires that once control is obtained, all the assets acquired and liabilities assumed, including amounts attributable to noncontrolling interests, are recorded at their respective fair values at the date of acquisition. The determination of fair values of identifiable assets and liabilities requires estimates and the use of valuation techniques when market value is not readily available. Significant estimates in valuing certain assets and liabilities assumed include, but are not limited to, the amount and timing of future cash flows, growth rates, discount rates and useful lives. The excess of the fair value of identifiable assets and liabilities acquired, excluding noncontrolling interest, over purchase price is recorded as a bargain purchase gain.

Determining the fair value of identified assets acquired, liabilities assumed and noncontrolling interest requires judgment and involves the use of significant estimates and assumptions. If our assumptions or estimates in the fair value calculation change based on information that becomes available during the one-year period from the acquisition date, we may record adjustments to the net assets acquired. As purchase accounting is finalized, we have recorded the bargain purchase gain within the Consolidated Statements of Operations, and as a result, any subsequent adjustments will be recorded to earnings.

Inflation Reduction Act Manufacturing Production Credit

Our estimate of the Section 45X advanced manufacturing production tax credit is based on Final Regulations released by the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service on October 24, 2024. Any changes to determinations of eligible production costs upon the final scope, terms and conditions of the Final Regulations could impact our estimate of eligible manufacturing production credits issued. A change in eligible costs of $10 million would impact our estimate by $1 million.

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Recently Issued Accounting Standards Updates

Information regarding recently issued accounting pronouncements is included in Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements included herein.

Item 7. Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

This Management’s Discussion and Analysis (“MD&A”) provides information that management believes is relevant to an assessment and understanding of the consolidated financial condition and results of operations of Century Aluminum Company and its subsidiaries (collectively, “Century,” the “Company,” “our” and “we”) and should be read in conjunction with the accompanying consolidated financial statements and related notes thereto in Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data and in Item 1A. Risk Factors. This MD&A contains “forward-looking statements” - See “Forward-Looking Statements” above. The following discussion and analysis are for the year ended December 31, 2023, compared with the same period in 2022 unless otherwise stated. For discussion and analysis of the year ended December 31, 2022, compared with the same period in 2021, please refer to "Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" included in Part II, Item 7. of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2022, filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the "SEC") on February 27, 2023.

Overview

We are a global producer of primary aluminum with aluminum reduction facilities, or "smelters," in the United States and Iceland. In addition to our primary aluminum assets, we have a 55% joint venture interest in the Jamalco bauxite mining operation and alumina refinery in Jamaica. The Jamalco refinery supplies a substantial amount of the alumina used for the production of primary aluminum at our Grundartangi, Iceland facility. We also own a carbon anode production facility located in the Netherlands. The key determinants of our results of operations and cash flow from operations are as follows:

•the price of primary aluminum, which is based on the London Metal Exchange ("LME") and other exchanges, plus any regional premiums and value-added product premiums;

•the cost of goods sold, the principal components of which are electrical power, alumina, carbon products, caustic soda, natural gas, heavy fuel oil and labor, which in aggregate represent more than 79% of our cost of goods sold; and

•our production volume and product mix.

Section 45X of the Inflation Reduction Act

On December 14, 2023, the U.S. Treasury Department’s issued proposed regulations implementing Section 45X of the Inflation Reduction Act, and the expected impact of the Section 45X Advanced Manufacturing Tax Credit on the Company. The government has incentivized the production of aluminum by offering a tax credit equal to 10% of eligible domestic production costs. Based on the proposed regulations, we have recognized a receivable and corresponding offset to cost of goods sold and selling, general and administrative expenses. Any changes to the proposed regulations as part of the U.S. Treasury Department's finalization of the regulations could result in a subsequent adjustment to the estimated credit as of December 31, 2023.

Hawesville temporary curtailment

In August 2022 we fully curtailed production at the Hawesville facility and expect to continue to maintain the plant with the intention of restarting operations when market conditions permit, including energy prices returning to more normalized levels and aluminum prices maintaining levels that can support the on-going costs and capital expenditures necessary to restart and operate the plant.

For the year ended December 31, 2023, we incurred curtailment charges of $16.6 million, including $9.0 million related to excess capacity charges. These charges were partially offset by income related to scrap and materials sales of $1.7 million. Comparatively, for the year ended December 31, 2022, we recognized an impairment charge of $159.4 million, approximately $18.1 million of expense during the year related to wages and severance triggered by our issuance of the WARN notice and excess capacity charges, partially offset by final plant idling activities. We also recognized a non-cash other postretirement benefits ("OPEB") curtailment gain totaling $8.9 million.

Acquisition of 55% interest in Jamalco

On May 2, 2023, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Century Aluminum Jamaica Holdings, Inc., acquired for $1.00 a 55% interest in Jamalco, an unincorporated joint venture with Clarendon Alumina Production Limited ("CAP"), which is owned by the Government of Jamaica. Jamalco is engaged in bauxite mining and alumina refining in Jamaica. The Company's wholly-owned subsidiary, General Alumina Jamaica Limited, is the managing partner of the Jamalco joint venture. Jamalco has optimal alumina production capacity of approximately 1.4 million tonnes. Our historical financial statements for periods prior to May 2, 2023 do not include the results of Jamalco. Refer to Note 2. Acquisition of Jamalco for further information.

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Mt. Holly Power Contract

On October 27, 2023, our wholly-owned subsidiary, Century Aluminum of South Carolina, Inc. ("CASC"), entered into an agreement with the South Carolina Public Service Authority (also known as Santee Cooper) for a new, three-year power contract for Century's Mt. Holly aluminum smelter. The contract will be effective as of January 1, 2024, and run through December 2026, and will provide for 295MW of electric power at cost-of-service based rates, allowing the Mt. Holly smelter to continue operating at its current capacity and potentially to restart the remaining 25% of its curtailed production capacity.

Jamalco Equipment Failure

In June 2023, Jamalco experienced a power disruption caused by damage to its power generation unit. The equipment failure resulted in a loss of production at Jamalco of approximately 84,000 tonnes for the year ended December 31, 2023. The impact of the equipment failure was approximately $30.4 million. Despite returning the equipment to full capacity as of the end of October, we continue to see some inefficiencies into the first quarter of 2024. We are actively engaged with our insurance carriers in connection with this equipment failure to determine the specific amount of coverage available to us, including any applicable deductibles.

Pricing of aluminum

The overall price of primary aluminum consists of three components: (i) the base commodity price, which is based on quoted prices on the LME and other exchanges; plus (ii) any regional premium (e.g., the Midwest premium for metal sold in the United States ("MWP") and the European Duty Paid premium for metal sold into Europe); plus (iii) any value-added product premium. Each of these price components has its own drivers and variability.

The price of aluminum is influenced by a number of factors, including global supply-demand balance, inventory levels, speculative activities by market participants, production activities by producers, geopolitical and economic conditions, as well as production costs in major production regions. These factors can be highly variable and difficult to predict which can lead to significant volatility in the price of aluminum. Increases or decreases in primary aluminum prices result in variability in our revenues (assuming all other factors are unchanged). From time to time, we may seek to manage our exposure to fluctuations in the LME price of primary aluminum and/or associated regional premiums through financial instruments designed to limit our downside price risk. Information regarding financial contracts is included in Note 20. Derivatives and risks affiliated with such financial contracts are disclosed specifically in Item 1A. Risk Factors.

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The historic volatility of the price of aluminum is reflected in the chart below:

During 2023, global, macroeconomic trends continued to impact global LME inventory levels which remain near all-time lows. The most significant demand growth was seen in China as aluminum-intensive electric vehicles and renewable energy applications supported a 5% demand increase from 2022. Western demand remained challenged, contributing to a 17% decline in the LME primary aluminum average spot price from 2022. The following table summarizes the average price for primary aluminum per tonne for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021.

Energy, Key Supplies and Raw Materials

Our operating costs are significantly impacted by changes in the prices of the materials used in the production of aluminum, including alumina, electrical power and carbon products. These costs may be subject to increasing inflationary pressures, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Because we sell our products based principally on the LME price for primary aluminum, regional premiums and value-added product premiums, we are unable to pass increased production costs on to our customers. Although we attempt to mitigate the effects of price fluctuations from time to time through the use of various fixed-price commitments, financial instruments and also by negotiating LME-based pricing in some of our raw materials and electrical power contracts, these efforts also limit our ability to take advantage of favorable changes in the market prices for primary aluminum or raw materials and may affect our financial position, results of operations and cash flows.

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Alumina and electrical power represent the two largest components of our cost of goods sold. As a result, the availability of these cost components at competitive prices is critical to the profitability of our operations. The pricing under our alumina supply contracts varies from contract to contract. A major portion of our alumina requirements is indexed to the price of primary aluminum, which provides a natural hedge to one of our largest production costs. We also purchase alumina based on a published alumina index and at fixed prices. The alumina price is influenced by a number of factors, including global supply-demand balance, natural disasters and weather events, and other factors outside of our control. Additionally, with our acquisition of a 55% interest in Jamalco, we secured a predictable, long-term supply of alumina and achieved increased transparency and control of our supply chain. The average market alumina index price as a percentage of market LME price per tonne was 15% for 2023 and 13% for 2022 and 2021.

Electrical power is our other largest operating cost. Currently, our Hawesville and Sebree plants receive all of their electricity requirements under market-based power agreements and Grundartangi receives 20% of its electricity requirements from market-based power agreements. Market-based energy prices are driven in large part by the price of coal, natural gas, and other fuel sources, weather influenced reservoir or generation levels for wind, solar and hydro production and weather-influenced electric loads. Extreme weather events, such as that experienced in mid-February 2021 throughout the United States, the low rain levels experienced in Nordic regions during winter 2021 and 2022, can result in low generation, power outages and/or significant increases in demand, which may result in significant increased power costs incurred in our operations. In December 2023, continued dry and cold conditions led the energy companies to issue partial curtailment orders across their industrial customers, including our Grundartangi smelter. The end of these curtailments remain subject to weather patterns and reservoir levels in Iceland and other factors. Additionally, extreme geopolitical events, such as the on-going Russia-Ukraine conflict, which led to the cut-off of natural gas supply to Western Europe and increased exports of U.S natural gas as result, may result in significant power costs globally.

Our Mt. Holly plant has a power supply agreement with Santee Cooper that runs through December 2026. Under this power supply agreement, 100% of Mt. Holly’s current electrical power requirements are supplied from Santee Cooper’s generation at cost of service based rates.

In Iceland, approximately 70% of the power requirements for our Grundartangi plant are indexed to the price of primary aluminum, which provides a natural hedge of one of our largest production costs. Approximately 20% of Grundartangi’s power requirements is linked to the market price for power in the Nord Pool power market, the trading market for power in the Nordic countries and certain other areas of Europe, and the remaining 10% of power requirements is fixed. In July 2021, Grundartangi reached an agreement with Landsvirkjun for an extension of the existing contract to supply power for January 1, 2024 through December 31, 2026 and will increase the existing contract from 161 MW to 182 MW over time to provide the necessary flexibility to support the most recent capacity creep requirements and future growth opportunities for value-added products at the Grundartangi plant, including the Grundartangi casthouse project. In September 2022, this agreement was further amended to provide for 42 MW at a fixed price and 119 MW at rates linked to Nord Pool plus transmission through 2023, and beginning January 1, 2024 through December 31, 2026, this agreement allows for fixed rates plus a small variable rate portion of the full 182 MW. Grundartangi also has a 25 MW power purchase agreement with Landsvirkjun at LME-based variable rates.

Production/Shipment Volumes

Shipment volume is another key determinant of our financial results. Fluctuations in production and shipment volumes, other than through acquisitions or expansions, are generally small period over period. Any adverse changes in the conditions that affect shipment volumes could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and cash flows. Our 2023 shipment volumes were adversely impacted by the curtailment of our Hawesville facility in August 2022. This was partially offset by a full year of Mt. Holly operating at 75% capacity in 2023.

The following table sets forth, for the periods indicated, the shipment volumes and revenues for primary aluminum shipments:

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(1)Excludes scrap aluminum, purchased aluminum and alumina sales

Results of Operations

Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2022

Net sales: Net sales decreased by $591.9 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023, compared to the same period in 2022, primarily driven by unfavorable LME and regional premium price realizations of $384.6 million and unfavorable volume of $376.7 million primarily related to the full curtailment of our Hawesville smelter in the third quarter of 2022, partially offset by favorable alumina prices and sales volume of $186.1 million primarily attributable to Jamalco sales of $150.3 million since acquisition in May 2023.

Gross profit (loss): Gross profit increased by $45.2 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023, compared to the same period in 2022, primarily driven by favorable power price realizations of $289.9 million, favorable raw material price realization of $117.6 million and $56.5 million attributable to the Inflation Reduction Act manufacturing production credit. The changes were partially offset by unfavorable LME and regional premium price realizations of $384.6 million and unfavorable volume and product mix of $33.0 million driven by the curtailment at our Hawesville smelter.

Asset impairment charge: An asset impairment charge was recognized for the twelve months ended December 31, 2022 as a result of the temporary curtailment of the Hawesville facility, announced during June 2022. As the curtailment represents a significant adverse change in the extent and manner in which Hawesville will be used, we accordingly evaluated the Hawesville asset group for recoverability which resulted in the recognized impairment charge of $159.4 million.

Selling, general and administrative expenses: Selling, general and administrative expenses increased $6.8 million in 2023 compared to 2022, primarily due to increases in share-based compensation due to the increase in the Company's stock price year over year. See Note 14. Share-based compensation to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

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Net (loss) gain on forward and derivative contracts: In 2023, we recognized losses of $61.8 million primarily driven by decreases in LME and Nord Pool forward prices. In 2022, we recognized gains of $197.1 million primarily driven by decreases in LME and MWP forward prices, and increased gains on Nord Pool derivative contracts due to Nord Pool power forward price increases. See Note 20. Derivatives to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Income tax benefit (expense): We have a valuation allowance recorded against our net U.S. and Jamaican deferred tax assets, and a portion of our Icelandic deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2023. We recognized a $14.6 million income tax benefit in 2023 as compared to income tax expense of $47.4 million in 2022. The period-to-period change is primarily related to foreign results in the current period. See Note 16. Income Taxes to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Liquidity

Our principal sources of liquidity are available cash and cash flow from operations. We also have access to our existing U.S. and Iceland revolving credit facilities (collectively, the "revolving credit facilities") and have raised capital in the past through public equity and debt markets. We regularly explore various other financing alternatives. Our principal uses of cash include the funding of operating costs (including post-retirement benefits), debt service requirements, capital expenditures, investments in our growth activities and in related businesses, working capital and other general corporate requirements.

We believe that cash provided from operations and financing activities will be adequate to cover our operations and business needs over the next 12 months. As of December 31, 2023, we had cash and cash equivalents of approximately $88.8 million and unused availability under our revolving credit facilities of $223.7 million (including $80.0 million under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement referred to below). Our cash and cash equivalents and unused availability under our revolving credit facilities comprise our liquidity position, which was $312.5 million as of December 31, 2023.

Our material contractual obligations consist of purchase obligations under long-term alumina and power contracts, debt and related interest payments and operating leases. See Note 6. Leases, Note 8. Debt, Note 17. Commitments and Contingencies and Note 18. Asset retirement obligations ("ARO") to the accompanying consolidated financial statements for additional information regarding future maturities of debt and operating leases and obligations under power contracts.

Available Cash

Our available cash and cash equivalents balance at December 31, 2023 was $88.8 million compared to $54.3 million at December 31, 2022.

Sources and Uses of Cash

Our cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities as reflected in the consolidated statement of cash flows for the twelve months ended December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021 are summarized below:

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Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2022

Net cash provided by operating activities for 2023 was $105.6 million compared to $25.9 million in 2022. The change in net cash provided by operating activities was due to changes in working capital primarily attributable to timing of receipts and payments.

The decrease in net cash used in investing activities during 2023 was primarily attributable to $25.7 million in proceeds from the Mt. Holly Commerce Park Land sale and $11.5 million related to the acquisition of Jamalco, net of cash acquired, partially offset by higher spending on capital projects during the twelve months ended December 31, 2023.

The change in net cash used in financing activities in 2023 compared to net cash provided by financing activities in 2022 was primarily due to net repayments on our revolving credit facilities in 2023 and repayment of the Iceland Term Facility, partially offset by the sale of carbon credits and proceeds from the Vlissingen Facility Agreement.

Availability under Our Credit Facilities

Our U.S. revolving credit facility, dated May 2018 (as amended, the "U.S. revolving credit facility"), previously provided for borrowings of up to $220.0 million, including up to $110.0 million under a letter of credit sub-facility. In June 2022, we entered into a Fourth Amendment to our existing $220.0 million U.S. revolving credit facility, increasing the maximum capacity from $220.0 million to $250.0 million, including up to $150.0 million under a letter of credit sub-facility. The U.S. revolving credit facility matures in June 2027. Any letters of credit issued and outstanding under the U.S. revolving credit facility reduce our borrowing availability on a dollar-for-dollar basis.

We have also entered into, through our wholly-owned subsidiary Nordural Grundartangi ehf ("Grundartangi"), a revolving credit facility, dated November 2013, as amended (the "Iceland revolving credit facility") which originally provided for borrowings of up to $50.0 million in the aggregate. On February 4, 2022, we amended the Iceland revolving credit facility and increased the facility amount to $80.0 million in the aggregate. On September 28, 2022, we further amended the Iceland revolving credit facility and increased the facility amount to $100.0 million in the aggregate. The Iceland revolving credit facility matures December 2026.

The availability of funds under our credit facilities is limited by a specified borrowing base consisting of certain accounts receivable, inventory and qualified cash deposits which meet the lenders' eligibility criteria. Increases in the price of aluminum and/or restarts of previously curtailed operations, for example, increase our borrowing base by increasing our accounts receivable and inventory balances; decreases in the price of aluminum and/or curtailments of production capacity would decrease our borrowing base by reducing our accounts receivable and inventory balances. As of December 31, 2023, our U.S. revolving credit facility had a borrowing base of $128.8 million, $23.7 million in outstanding borrowings, and $61.4 million in letters of credit outstanding. The borrowing base under the U.S. revolving credit facility has been adversely affected by the curtailment of our Hawesville facility and a reduction in LME and regional premium prices. Of the outstanding letters of credit, $13.7 million related to our power commitments, $47.7 million are related to hedging collateral, and the remainder are primarily for the purpose of securing certain secured debt and workers’ compensation commitments. As of December 31, 2023, our Iceland revolving credit facility had a borrowing base of $100.0 million and no outstanding borrowings.

As of December 31, 2023, our credit facilities (including the Vlissingen Facility Agreement referred to below) had $223.7 million of net availability after consideration of our outstanding borrowings and letters of credit. We may borrow and make repayments under our revolving credit facilities in the ordinary course based on a number of factors, including the timing of payments from our customers and payments to our suppliers.

Our credit facilities contain customary covenants, including restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, indebtedness, affiliate transactions, liens, dividends and distributions, dispositions of collateral, investments and prepayments of indebtedness, including in the U.S. revolving credit facility, a springing financial covenant that requires us to maintain a fixed charge coverage ratio of at least 1.0 to 1.0 any time availability under the U.S. revolving credit facility is less than or equal to $25.0 million, or 10% of the borrowing base but not less than $17.85 million. We intend to maintain availability to comply with these levels any time we would not meet the ratio, which could limit our ability to access the full amount of our availability under our U.S. revolving credit facility. Our Iceland revolving credit facility contains covenants that require Grundartangi to maintain a minimum equity ratio. As of December 31, 2023, we were in compliance with all such covenants or maintained availability above such covenant triggers.

Grundartangi Casthouse Facility

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On November 2, 2021, in connection with the casthouse project at Grundartangi, we entered into an eight-year Term Facility Agreement with Arion Bank hf, to provide for borrowings up to $130.0 million (the “Casthouse Facility”). Under the Casthouse Facility, repayments of principal amounts will be made in equal quarterly installments equal to 1.739% of the principal amount, the first payment occurring in July 2024, with the remaining 60% of the principal amount to be paid no later than the termination date. The Casthouse Facility will mature in December 2029. The Casthouse Facility bears interest at a rate equal to a base rate plus the applicable margin as set forth in the agreement. The Casthouse Facility is secured by a $430.0 million general bond. As of December 31, 2023, there were $104.3 million in borrowings outstanding under the Casthouse Facility.

The Casthouse Facility also contains customary covenants, including restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, indebtedness, preservation of assets, and dispositions of assets and contains a covenant that requires Grundartangi to maintain a minimum equity ratio. As of December 31, 2023, we were in compliance with all such covenants or maintained availability above such covenant triggers.

Senior Notes and Convertible Senior Notes

We have $250.0 million principal of senior secured notes that mature on April 1, 2028, unless earlier refinanced in accordance with their terms. Interest on the 2028 Notes is payable semi-annually on April 1 and October 1 of each year, beginning on October 1, 2021, at a rate of 7.5% per year. The indenture governing the 2028 Notes contains customary covenants which may limit our ability, and the ability of certain of our subsidiaries, to: (i) incur additional debt; (ii) incur additional liens; (iii) pay dividends or make distributions in respect of capital stock; (iv) purchase or redeem capital stock; (v) make investments or certain other restricted payments; (vi) sell assets; (vii) issue or sell stock of certain subsidiaries; (viii) enter into transactions with shareholders or affiliates; and (ix) effect a consolidation or merger.

In April 2021, we issued $86.3 million in aggregate principal amount of Convertible Notes due 2028, unless earlier converted, repurchased or redeemed. The Convertible Notes bear interest semi-annually in arrears on May 1 and November 1 of each year, beginning on November 1, 2021, at a rate of 2.75% per annum in cash.

Iceland Term Facility

Our wholly-owned subsidiary, Grundartangi, entered into a Term Facility Agreement with Arion Bank hf, dated September 2022, (the "Iceland Term Facility") to provide for borrowings up to €13.6 million. Under the Iceland Term Facility, repayments of principal amounts will be made in equal monthly installments, the first payment occurring in February 2023, with the remainder of the principal amount to be paid no later than the termination date in January 2024. Borrowings under the Iceland Term Facility will bear interest at a rate equal to 3.2% plus EUR EURIBOR 1 month as published by the European Money Markets Institute. As of December 31, 2023, there were $1.3 million (€1.1 million) in outstanding borrowings under the Iceland Term Facility.

Vlissingen Facility Agreement

On December 9, 2022, Vlissingen entered into the Vlissingen Facility Agreement with Glencore International AG pursuant to which Vlissingen may borrow from time to time up to $90 million in one or more loans at a fixed interest rate equal to 8.75% per annum and payable on December 2, 2024. The obligations under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement are secured by liens on the ground lease on which Vlissingen’s facilities are located, Vlissingen’s moveable assets, financial assets, receivables and other assets, and Vlissingen’s shares. The Vlissingen Facility Agreement contains customary covenants, including with respect to mergers, guarantees and preservation and dispositions of assets. The availability period for borrowings under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement ends December 2, 2024. Amounts drawn, if any, under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement are expected to be used for general corporate and working capital purposes of Century and its subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2023, there were $10.0 million in borrowings under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement.

Supplemental Guarantor Financial Information

The Company has filed a Registration Statement on Form S-3 (the "Universal Shelf Registration Statement") with the SEC pursuant to which the Company may, from time to time, offer an indeterminate amount of securities, which may include securities that are guaranteed by certain of the Company's subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2023, we have not issued any debt securities pursuant to the Universal Shelf Registration Statement. However, any securities that we may issue in the future may limit our ability, and the ability of certain of our subsidiaries, to pay dividends or make distributions in respect of capital stock.

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"Guarantor Subsidiaries" refers to all of our material domestic subsidiaries except for Nordural US LLC, Century Aluminum Development LLC, Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. and Century Aluminum Jamaica Holdings, Inc. The Guarantor Subsidiaries are 100% owned by Century. All guarantees will be full and unconditional; all guarantees will be joint and several. Our foreign subsidiaries, together with Nordural US LLC, Century Aluminum Development LLC, Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. and Century Aluminum Jamaica Holdings, Inc. are collectively referred to as the "Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries." We allocate corporate expenses or income to our subsidiaries and charge interest on certain intercompany balances.

The following summarized financial information of both the Company and the Guarantor Subsidiaries ("Guarantors") is presented on a combined basis. Intercompany balances and transactions between the Company and the Guarantors have been eliminated and the summarized financial information does not reflect investments of the Company or the Guarantors in the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries. The Company’s or Guarantors’ amounts due from, amounts due to, and transactions with the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries are disclosed below:

As of December 31, 2023 and December 31, 2022, an intercompany receivable due to the Company and Guarantors from the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries totaled $48.7 million and $18.2 million, respectively, and an intercompany non-current loan due to the Company from the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries totaled $384.9 million and $466.3 million, respectively. As of December 31, 2023, an intercompany current loan to the Company from the Non-Guarantors totaled $2.9 million. There was no intercompany current loan as of December 31, 2022.

Contingent Commitments

We have a contingent obligation in connection with the “unwind” of a contractual arrangement between Century Aluminum Kentucky ("CAKY"), Big Rivers and a third party and the execution of a long-term cost-based power contract with Kenergy, a member of a cooperative of Big Rivers, in July 2009. This contingent obligation consists of the aggregate payments made to Big Rivers by the third party on CAKY’s behalf in excess of the agreed upon base amount under the long-term cost-based power contract with Kenergy. As of December 31, 2023, the principal and accrued interest for the contingent obligation was $30.9 million, which was fully offset by a derivative asset. We may be required to make installment payments for the contingent obligation in the future. These payments are contingent based on the LME price of primary aluminum and the level of Hawesville’s operations. Based on the LME forward market at December 31, 2023 and our expected level of Hawesville's operations, we believe that we will not be required to make payments on the contingent obligation during the term of the agreement, which expires in 2028. There can be no assurance that circumstances will not change thus accelerating the timing of such payments.

Employee Benefit Plan Contributions

In 2013, we entered into a settlement agreement with the Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation (the "PBGC") regarding an alleged "cessation of operations" at our Ravenswood facility (the "PBGC Settlement Agreement"). Pursuant to the terms of the PBGC Settlement Agreement, we agreed to make additional contributions (above any minimum required contributions) to our defined benefit pension plans totaling approximately $17.4 million. Under certain circumstances, in periods of lower primary aluminum prices relative to our cost of operations, we were able to defer one or more of these payments, provided that we provide the PBGC with acceptable security for such deferred payments. We historically elected to defer certain payments

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under the PBGC Settlement Agreement and provided the PBGC with the appropriate security. On October 1, 2021, we amended the PBGC Settlement Agreement (the "Amended PBGC Settlement Agreement") such that we removed the deferral mechanism and agreed to contribute approximately $2.4 million per year to our defined benefit pension plans for a total of approximately $9.6 million, over four years beginning on November 30, 2022 and ending on November 30, 2025, subject to acceleration if certain terms and conditions are met in such amendment. As of December 31, 2023, we made contributions of $6.9 million related to the Amended PBGC Settlement Agreement.

Section 232 Aluminum Tariff

On March 23, 2018, the U.S. implemented a 10% tariff on imported primary aluminum products into the U.S. These tariffs are intended to protect U.S. national security and incentivize the restart of primary aluminum production in the U.S., reducing reliance on imports and ensuring that domestic producers, like Century, can supply all the aluminum necessary for critical industries and national defense. In addition to primary aluminum products, the tariffs also cover certain other semi-finished products. All imports that directly compete with our products are covered by the tariff, with the exception of imports from Australia, Canada and Mexico. Additionally, primary aluminum imports from Argentina are allowed up to an annual quota limit of 169,000 metric tonnes, the first 18,000 metric tonnes of imports from the European Union and the first 900 metric tonnes of imports from the United Kingdom are also allowed duty free. Imports that receive a product exclusion from the Department of Commerce may also enter the US duty free. In July 2022, the International Trade Commission (ITC) initiated a review of the Section 301 and 232 duties as required by law every four years.

On March 15, 2023, the ITC submitted a report to the United States Congress entitled, 'Economic Impact of Section 232 and 301 Tariffs on U.S. Industries,' in which the ITC found that the tariffs increased the production of domestic aluminum while causing prices to increase by less than two percent. Accordingly, we do not believe there will be any material changes to the current tariffs in the near future.

Other Items

In August 2022, President Biden signed the IRA into law. The IRA provides for substantial tax credits and incentives for the development of critical minerals (including aluminum), renewable energy, clean fuels, electric vehicles, and supporting infrastructure, among other provisions. Section 45X of the IRA contains a production tax credit equal to 10% of certain eligible production costs, including, without limitation, labor, energy, depreciation and amortization and overhead expenses. On December 14, 2023, the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service released proposed rules to provide guidance on the production tax credit requirements under Internal Revenue Code Section 45X (the “Proposed Regulations”). The Proposed Regulations provide guidance on rules that taxpayers must satisfy to qualify for the Section 45X tax credit. For the year ended December 31, 2023, we recognized $56.5 million as a reduction in Cost of goods sold and $2.8 million as a reduction in Selling, general and administrative expenses on the Consolidated Statements of Operations and recorded an equal amount as a Manufacturing credit receivable on the Consolidated Balance Sheets.

On January 17, 2023, our wholly owned subsidiary, Mt. Holly Commerce Park LLC, entered into a binding agreement, subject to ordinary course conditions, to sell approximately 133 acres of land for approximately $28.5 million. On September 12, 2023, the Mt. Holly Land Sale Agreement was completed at a revised purchase price of $25.7 million. The proceeds from this sale are restricted to be used on capital expenditures. We previously formed the commerce park, located near our Mt. Holly smelter, to develop excess land at the site and to assist the county with bringing additional business and commerce to the area.

During 2021, we announced plans for construction of a new billet casthouse at Grundartangi. The Grundartangi casthouse project began in late 2021 and is fully funded through the Casthouse Facility. The project is progressing and is expected to start production in the first quarter of 2024.

In 2011, our Board of Directors approved a $60.0 million common stock repurchase program and subsequently increased this program by $70.0 million in the first quarter of 2015. Under the program, Century is authorized to repurchase up to $130.0 million of our outstanding shares of common stock, from time to time, on the open market at prevailing market prices, in block trades or otherwise. The timing and amount of any shares repurchased will be determined by our management based on its evaluation of market conditions, the trading price of our common stock and other factors. We made no repurchases during the years ended 2023, 2022, and 2021. As of December 31, 2023, we had $43.7 million remaining under the repurchase program authorization. The repurchase program may be expanded, suspended or discontinued by our Board, in its sole discretion, at any time.

In November 2009, Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. ("CAWV") filed a class action complaint for declaratory judgment against the United Steel, Paper and Forestry, Rubber, Manufacturing, Energy, Allied Industrial and Service Workers

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International Union ("USW"), the USW’s local and certain CAWV retirees, individually and as class representatives ("CAWV Retirees"), seeking a declaration of CAWV’s rights to modify/terminate retiree medical benefits. Later in November 2009, the USW and representatives of a retiree class filed a separate suit against CAWV, Century Aluminum Company, Century Aluminum Master Welfare Benefit Plan, and various John Does with respect to the foregoing. On August 18, 2017, the District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia approved a settlement agreement in respect of these actions, pursuant to which, CAWV agreed to make payments into a trust for the benefit of the CAWV Retirees in the aggregate amount of $23.0 million over the course of ten years. Upon approval of the settlement, we paid $5.0 million to the aforementioned trust in September 2017 and agreed to pay the remaining amounts under the settlement agreement in annual increments of $2.0 million for nine years. At December 31, 2023, we had $2.0 million in other current liabilities and $3.3 million in other liabilities related to this agreement.

We are a defendant in several actions relating to various aspects of our business. While it is impossible to predict the ultimate disposition of any litigation, we do not believe that any of these lawsuits, either individually or in the aggregate, will have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations or liquidity. See Note 17. Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Capital Resources

We intend to finance our future capital expenditures from available cash, cash flow from operations and if necessary, borrowings under our existing revolving credit facilities. For major investment projects, we would likely seek financing from various capital and loan markets and may potentially pursue the formation of strategic alliances. We may be unable, however, to issue additional debt or equity securities, or enter into other financing arrangements on attractive terms, or at all, due to a number of factors including a lack of demand, unfavorable pricing, poor economic conditions, unfavorable interest rates, or our financial condition or credit rating at the time. Future uncertainty in the U.S. and international markets and economies may adversely affect our liquidity, our ability to access the debt or capital markets and our financial condition.

Capital expenditures incurred for the year ended December 31, 2023 were $25.9 million, excluding expenditures of $69.1 million associated with the Grundartangi casthouse project. We estimate our total capital spending in 2024, excluding the Grundartangi casthouse project, will be approximately $20 to $30 million, related to our ongoing investment and sustainability projects at our plants.

Critical Accounting Estimates

Our significant accounting policies are described in Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements. The preparation of the financial statements requires that management make judgments, assumptions and estimates in applying these accounting policies. Those judgments are normally based on knowledge and experience about past and current events and on assumptions about future events. Critical accounting estimates require management to make assumptions about matters that are highly uncertain at the time of the estimate and a change in these estimates may have a material impact on our financial position or results of operations. Significant judgments and estimates made by our management include expenses and liabilities related to inventories, pensions and other postretirement benefits ("OPEB"), deferred tax assets and property, plant and equipment. Our management has discussed the development and selection of these critical accounting estimates with the audit committee of our Board of Directors and the Audit Committee has reviewed our disclosure.

Inventories

Our inventories are stated at lower of cost or net realizable value ("NRV").

Our estimate of the market value of our inventories involves establishing a net realizable value for both finished goods and the components of inventory that will be converted to finished goods, raw materials and work in process. This requires management to use its judgment when making assumptions about future selling prices and the costs to complete our inventory during the period in which it will be sold.

Our assumptions are subject to inherent uncertainties given the volatility surrounding the market price for primary aluminum sales and the market price for our major inputs, alumina and electrical power.

Although we believe that the assumptions used to estimate the market value of our inventory are reasonable, actual market conditions at the time our inventory is sold may be more or less favorable than management’s current estimates.

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Pension and Other Postretirement Benefit Liabilities

We sponsor several pension and OPEB plans. Our liabilities under these defined benefit plans are determined using methodologies that involve several actuarial assumptions, the most significant of which are the discount rate and the long-term rate of return on plan assets. We review our actuarial assumptions on an annual basis and make modifications to the assumptions when appropriate.

Discount Rate Selection

We select a discount rate for purposes of measuring obligations under defined benefit plans by matching cash flows separately for each plan to the yields on high-quality zero coupon bonds. We use the Ryan Above Median Yield Curve (the "Ryan Curve"). We believe the projected cash flows used to determine the Ryan Curve rate provide a good approximation of the timing and amounts of our defined benefit payments under our plans and no adjustment to the Ryan Curve rate has been made.

A change of a half percentage point in the discount rate for our defined benefit plans would have the following effects on our obligations under these plans as of December 31, 2023:

Long-term Rate of Return on Plan Assets Assumption

Our expected long-term rate of return on plan assets is derived from our asset allocation strategies and anticipated future long-term performance of individual asset classes. Our analysis gives consideration to recent plan performance and historical returns; however, the assumptions are primarily based on long-term, prospective rates of return. The weighted average long-term rate of return on plan assets for our defined benefit pension plans is 7.25% for 2023.

Based on information provided by independent actuaries and other relevant sources, the Company believes that the assumptions used to estimate expenses, assets and liabilities of pensions and other postretirement benefits are reasonable; however, changes in these assumptions could impact the Company’s financial position, results of operations or cash flows.

Deferred Income Tax Assets

We regularly assess the likelihood that deferred tax assets will be recovered from future taxable income. To the extent we believe that it is more likely than not that a deferred tax asset will not be realized, a valuation allowance is established. The amount of a valuation allowance is based upon our best estimate of our ability to realize the net deferred tax assets. We have a valuation allowance of $537.6 million recorded against our net U.S. and Jamaican deferred tax assets and a portion of our Icelandic deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2023.

Property, Plant and Equipment Impairment

We review our property, plant and equipment for impairment whenever events or circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of these assets (asset group) may not be recoverable. The carrying amount of the assets (asset group) is not recoverable if it exceeds the sum of the undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the assets (asset group). In that case, an impairment loss would be recognized for the amount by which the carrying amount exceeds the fair value of the assets (asset group), with the fair value determined using a discounted cash flow calculation. These estimates of future cash flows include management’s assumptions about the expected use of the assets (asset group), the remaining useful life, expenditures to maintain the service potential, market and cost assumptions.

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Determination as to whether and how much an asset is impaired involves significant management judgment involving highly uncertain matters, including estimating the future sales volumes, future selling prices and estimated raw material and conversion costs, alternative uses for the asset, and estimated proceeds from the disposal of the asset.

Business Combination

We account for business combinations using the acquisition method of accounting, which requires that once control is obtained, all the assets acquired and liabilities assumed, including amounts attributable to noncontrolling interests, are recorded at their respective fair values at the date of acquisition. The determination of fair values of identifiable assets and liabilities requires estimates and the use of valuation techniques when market value is not readily available. Significant estimates in valuing certain assets and liabilities assumed include, but are not limited to, the amount and timing of future cash flows, growth rates, discount rates and useful lives. The excess of the fair value of identifiable assets and liabilities acquired, excluding noncontrolling interest, over purchase price is recorded as a bargain purchase gain.

Determining the fair value of identified assets acquired, liabilities assumed and noncontrolling interest requires judgment and involves the use of significant estimates and assumptions. If our assumptions or estimates in the fair value calculation change based on information that becomes available during the one-year period from the acquisition date, we may record adjustments to the net assets acquired. As purchase accounting is not finalized, we have recorded the preliminary bargain purchase gain as the deferred credit - preliminary bargain purchase gain within the Consolidated Balance Sheet. Upon the conclusion of the sooner of purchase accounting or the measurement period, any subsequent adjustments will be recorded to earnings.

Inflation Reduction Act Manufacturing Production Credit

Our estimate of the Section 45X advanced manufacturing production tax credit is based on Proposed Regulations released by the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service on December 14, 2023. Any changes to determinations of eligible production costs upon the final scope, terms and conditions of the Proposed Regulations could impact our estimate of eligible manufacturing production credits issued. A change in eligible costs of $10 million would impact our estimate by $1 million.

Recently Issued Accounting Standards Updates

Information regarding recently issued accounting pronouncements is included in Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements included herein.

Item 7. Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

This Management’s Discussion and Analysis (“MD&A”) provides information that management believes is relevant to an assessment and understanding of the consolidated financial condition and results of operations of Century Aluminum Company and its subsidiaries (collectively, “Century,” the “Company,” “our” and “we”) and should be read in conjunction with the accompanying consolidated financial statements and related notes thereto in Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data and in Item 1A. Risk Factors. This MD&A contains “forward-looking statements” - See “Forward-Looking Statements” above. The following discussion and analysis are for the year ended December 31, 2022, compared with the same period in 2021 unless otherwise stated. For discussion and analysis of the year ended December 31, 2021, compared with the same period in 2020, please refer to "Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations" included in Part II, Item 7. of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2021, filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (the "SEC") on February 25, 2022.

Overview

We are a global producer of primary aluminum with aluminum reduction facilities, or "smelters," in the United States and Iceland. The key determinants of our results of operations and cash flow from operations are as follows:

•the price of primary aluminum, which is based on the London Metal Exchange ("LME") and other exchanges, plus any regional premiums and value-added product premiums;

•the cost of goods sold, the principal components of which are electrical power, alumina, carbon products and labor, which in aggregate represent more than 85% of our cost of goods sold; and

•our production volume and product mix.

Hawesville temporary curtailment

On June 22, 2022, we announced that we would temporarily idle all of our production capacity at our Hawesville smelter, as a direct result of historically high energy costs and declining LME prices. As part of this action, we issued a notice to most of the employees at the facility pursuant to the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (“WARN”) Act regarding our intentions to temporarily curtail Hawesville plant operations by no later than August 20, 2022. We have since fully curtailed all of our production at the facility and expect to continue to maintain the plant with the intention of restarting operations when market conditions permit, including energy prices returning to more normalized levels and aluminum prices maintaining levels that can support the on-going costs and capital expenditures necessary to restart and operate the plant.

As the curtailment represents a significant adverse change in the extent and manner in which the Hawesville smelter will be used, we accordingly evaluated the Hawesville asset group for recoverability. As the carrying value of the Hawesville asset group was determined to not be recoverable based on the estimated undiscounted cash flows expected to be generated over the life of the asset group, an impairment charge of $159.4 million was recognized to write down the asset group to its estimated fair value. We recognized $18.1 million of expense during the year related to wages and severance triggered by our issuance of the WARN notice and excess capacity charges, partially offset by final plant idling activities. We also recognized a non-cash other postretirement benefits ("OPEB") curtailment gain totaling $8.9 million for the year ended December 31, 2022.

Pricing of aluminum

The overall price of primary aluminum consists of three components: (i) the base commodity price, which is based on quoted prices on the LME and other exchanges; plus (ii) any regional premium (e.g., the Midwest premium for metal sold in the United States ("MWP") and the European Duty Paid premium for metal sold into Europe); plus (iii) any value-added product premium. Each of these price components has its own drivers and variability.

The price of aluminum is influenced by a number of factors, including global supply-demand balance, inventory levels, speculative activities by market participants, production activities by competitors and political and economic conditions, as well as production costs in major production regions. These factors can be highly variable and difficult to predict which can lead to significant volatility in the aluminum price. Increases or decreases in primary aluminum prices result in increases and decreases in our revenues (assuming all other factors are unchanged). From time to time, we may seek to manage our exposure to fluctuations in the LME price of primary aluminum and/or associated regional premiums through financial instruments designed to protect our downside price risk exposure. Information regarding financial contracts is included in Note 19. Derivatives and risks affiliated with such financial contracts are disclosed specifically in Item 1A. Risk Factors.

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The historic volatility of the price of aluminum is reflected in the chart below:

During 2022, global, macroeconomic conditions, including the onset of the Russia-Ukraine conflict in the first quarter of 2022, contributed to a 32% decline in the LME spot price for primary aluminum for the year with a monthly average price in March 2022 of $3,538 compared to a monthly average price in December 2022 of $2,395. The average LME price for primary aluminum was $2,707 per tonne in 2022, compared to $2,475 per tonne in 2021, and $1,702 per tonne in 2020. The average MWP price was $657 per tonne in 2022 compared to $581 per tonne in 2021 and $267 per tonne in 2020. The average European Duty Paid premium was $466 per tonne in 2022 compared to $272 per tonne in 2021 and $126 per tonne in 2020.

Energy, Key Supplies and Raw Materials

Our operating costs are significantly impacted by changes in the prices of the materials used in the production of aluminum, including alumina, electrical power and carbon products. These costs may be subject to increasing inflationary pressures, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Because we sell our products based principally on the LME price for primary aluminum, regional premiums and value-added product premiums, we are unable to pass increased production costs on to our customers. Although we attempt to mitigate the effects of price fluctuations from time to time through the use of various fixed-price commitments, financial instruments and also by negotiating LME-based pricing in some of our raw materials and electrical power contracts, these efforts also limit our ability to take advantage of favorable changes in the market prices for primary aluminum or raw materials and may affect our financial position, results of operations and cash flows.

Alumina and electrical power represent the two largest components of our cost of goods sold. As a result, the availability of these cost components at competitive prices is critical to the profitability of our operations. The pricing under our alumina supply contracts varies from contract to contract. A major portion of our alumina requirements is indexed to the price of primary aluminum, which provides a natural hedge to one of our largest production costs. We also purchase alumina based on a published alumina index and at fixed prices. The alumina price is influenced by a number of factors, including global supply-demand balance, natural disasters and weather events, and other factors outside of our control. The average market alumina index price as a percentage of market LME price per tonne for 2022 was 13% compared to 13% for 2021 and 16% for 2020.

Electrical power is our other largest operating cost. Currently, our Hawesville and Sebree plants receive all of their electricity requirements under market-based power agreements and Grundartangi receives 20% of its electricity requirements from market-based power agreements. Market-based energy prices are driven in large part by the price of coal, natural gas, and

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other fuel sources, weather influenced reservoir or generation levels for wind, solar and hydro production and weather-influenced electric loads. Extreme weather events, such as that experienced in mid-February 2021 throughout the United States, the low rain levels experienced in Nordic regions during winter 2021 and 2022, can result in low generation, power outages and/or significant increases in demand, which may result in significant increased power costs incurred in our operations. Additionally, extreme geopolitical events, such as the Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2022, which led to the cut-off of natural gas supply to Western Europe and increased exports of U.S natural gas as result, may result in significant power costs globally.

Our Mt. Holly plant has a power supply agreement with Santee Cooper that runs through December 2023. Under this power supply agreement, 100% of Mt. Holly’s electrical power requirements are supplied from Santee Cooper’s generation at cost of service based rates. The contract provides sufficient energy to allow the Mt. Holly smelter to produce at 75% of full production capacity.

In Iceland, approximately 70% of the power requirements for our Grundartangi plant are indexed to the price of primary aluminum, which provides a natural hedge of one of our largest production costs. Approximately 20% of Grundartangi’s power requirements is linked to the market price for power in the Nord Pool power market, the trading market for power in the Nordic countries and certain other areas of Europe, and the remaining 10% of power requirements is fixed. In July 2021, Grundartangi reached an agreement with Landsvirkjun for an extension of the existing contract to supply power for January 1, 2024 through December 31, 2026 and will increase the existing contract from 161 MW to 182 MW over time to provide the necessary flexibility to support the most recent capacity creep requirements and future growth opportunities for value-added products at the Grundartangi plant, including the Grundartangi casthouse project. In September 2022, this agreement was further amended to provide for 42 MW at a fixed price and 119 MW at rates linked to Nord Pool plus transmission through 2023, and beginning January 1, 2024 through December 31, 2026, this agreement allows for fixed rates plus a small variable rate portion of the full 182 MW. Grundartangi also has a 25 MW power purchase agreement with Landsvirkjun at LME-based variable rates.

Production/Shipment Volumes

Shipment volume is another key determinant of our financial results.  In normal circumstances, fluctuations in production and shipment volumes, other than through acquisitions or expansions, are generally small period over period. Any adverse changes in the conditions that affect shipment volumes could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and cash flows. Our 2022 shipment volumes were adversely impacted by power curtailments in Iceland in winter 2022 driven by low reservoir levels and the curtailment of our Hawesville facility in August 2022, partially offset by the restart of production at Mt. Holly bringing operating capacity to 75% in second quarter of 2022.

The following table sets forth, for the periods indicated, the shipment volumes and revenues for primary aluminum shipments:

(1) Excludes scrap aluminum, purchased aluminum and alumina sales

Results of Operations

Year Ended December 31, 2022 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2021

Net sales: Net sales (excluding scrap aluminum and alumina sales) increased by $564.8 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2022, compared to the same period in 2021, primarily driven by favorable LME and regional premium price realizations of $496.9 million and favorable product mix of $82.0 million driven by higher value-added product premiums, partially offset by $26.8 million in volume primarily related to the full curtailment of our Hawesville smelter in the third quarter of 2022.

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Gross profit (loss): Gross profit decreased by $77.5 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2022, compared to the same period in 2021, primarily driven by unfavorable raw material price realizations of $338.4 million and unfavorable power price realizations of $285.5 million. The changes were partially offset by favorable LME and regional premium price realizations of $496.9 million, and favorable volume and product mix of $28.2 million driven by the restart at our Mt. Holly facility, curtailment at our Hawesville smelter and higher value-added product premiums.

Asset impairment charge: An asset impairment charge was recognized for the twelve months ended December 31, 2022 as a result of the temporary curtailment of the Hawesville facility, announced during June 2022. As the curtailment represents a significant adverse change in the extent and manner in which Hawesville will be used, we accordingly evaluated the Hawesville asset group for recoverability which resulted in the recognized impairment charge of $159.4 million.

Selling, general and administrative expenses: Selling, general and administrative expenses decreased $20.1 million in 2022 compared to 2021, primarily due to decreases in share-based compensation due to fluctuations in the Company's stock price year over year.

Net gain (loss) on forward and derivative contracts: In 2022, we recognized gains of $197.1 million primarily driven by decreases in LME and MWP forward prices, and increased gains on Nord Pool derivative contracts due to Nord Pool power forward price increases. In 2021, we recognized losses of $212.4 million primarily related to LME and MWP fixed forward financial sales contracts. The losses were primarily driven by fluctuations in forward prices. See Note 19. Derivatives to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Income tax benefit (expense): We have a valuation allowance against all of our U.S. and certain foreign deferred tax assets. We recognized $(47.4) million income tax expense in 2022 as compared to income tax benefit of $30.6 million in 2021. The period-to-period change is primarily related to foreign earnings in the current period, and a discrete tax benefit of $49.8 million related to the recognition of certain foreign deferred tax assets in 2021. See Note 15. Income Taxes to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

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Liquidity and Capital Resources

Liquidity

Our principal sources of liquidity are available cash and cash flow from operations. We also have access to our existing U.S. and Iceland revolving credit facilities (collectively, the "revolving credit facilities") and have raised capital in the past through public equity and debt markets. Additionally, on December 9, 2022, Vlissingen entered into the Vlissingen Facility Agreement (defined below) pursuant to which it may borrow from time to time up to $90.0 million. We regularly explore various other financing alternatives. Our principal uses of cash include the funding of operating costs (including post-retirement benefits), debt service requirements, capital expenditures, investments in our growth activities and in related businesses, working capital and other general corporate requirements.

We believe that cash provided from operations and financing activities will be adequate to cover our operations and business needs over the next 12 months. As of December 31, 2022, we had cash and cash equivalents of approximately $54.3 million, unused availability under our revolving credit facilities of $100.7 million, and additional liquidity of $90.0 million under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement, resulting in a total liquidity position of approximately $245.0 million.

Available Cash

Our available cash and cash equivalents balance at December 31, 2022 was $54.3 million compared to $29.0 million at December 31, 2021.

Sources and Uses of Cash

Our cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities as reflected in the consolidated statement of cash flows for the twelve months ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020 are summarized below:

Year Ended December 31, 2022 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2021

Net cash provided by operating activities for 2022 was $25.9 million, compared to cash used in operating activities of $64.7 million in 2021. The change in net cash provided by operating activities was primarily driven by improvement in results of operations year over year. The change was further due to changes in working capital primarily attributable to timing of payables, timing of raw material receipts, and pricing increases, and partially offset by hedge settlements.

The increase in net cash used in investing activities during 2022 was primarily due to higher spending on capital projects during the twelve months ended December 31, 2022, driven by capital investments in the Mt. Holly restart project and the Grundartangi casthouse project.

The change in net cash provided by financing activities from 2022 compared to 2021 was primarily due to borrowings under the Grundartangi casthouse facility and Iceland term facility in 2022 as compared to net borrowings on our revolving credit facilities in 2021.

Availability under Our Credit Facilities

Our U.S. revolving credit facility, dated May 2018 (as amended, the "U.S. revolving credit facility"), previously provided for borrowings of up to $220.0 million, including up to $110.0 million under a letter of credit sub-facility. In June 2022, we entered into a Fourth Amendment to our existing $220.0 million U.S. revolving credit facility, increasing the maximum capacity from $220.0 million to $250.0 million, including up to $150.0 million under a letter of credit sub-facility. The U.S.

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revolving credit facility matures in June 2027. Any letters of credit issued and outstanding under the U.S. revolving credit facility reduce our borrowing availability on a dollar-for-dollar basis.

We have also entered into, through our wholly-owned subsidiary Nordural Grundartangi ehf ("Grundartangi"), a revolving credit facility, dated November 2013, as amended (the "Iceland revolving credit facility") which originally provided for borrowings of up to $50.0 million in the aggregate. On February 4, 2022, we amended the Iceland revolving credit facility and increased the facility amount to $80.0 million in the aggregate. On September 28, 2022, we further amended the Iceland revolving credit facility and increased the facility amount to $100.0 million in the aggregate. The Iceland revolving credit facility matures November 2024.

The availability of funds under our credit facilities is limited by a specified borrowing base consisting of certain accounts receivable, inventory and qualified cash deposits which meet the lenders' eligibility criteria. Increases in the price of aluminum and/or restarts of previously curtailed operations, for example, increase our borrowing base by increasing our accounts receivable and inventory balances; decreases in the price of aluminum and/or curtailments of production capacity would decrease our borrowing base by reducing our accounts receivable and inventory balances. As of December 31, 2022, our U.S. revolving credit facility had a borrowing base of $165.5 million, $90.0 million in outstanding borrowings, and $34.9 million in letters of credit outstanding. The borrowing base under the U.S. revolving credit facility has been adversely affected by the curtailment of our Hawesville facility. Of the outstanding letters of credit, $21.6 million related to our power commitments, $13.3 million are related to hedging collateral, and the remainder are primarily for the purpose of securing certain secured debt and workers’ compensation commitments. As of December 31, 2022, our Iceland revolving credit facility had a borrowing base of $95.1 million and $35.0 million in outstanding borrowings.

As of December 31, 2022, our credit facilities had $100.7 million of net availability after consideration of our outstanding borrowings and letters of credit. We may borrow and make repayments under our revolving credit facilities in the ordinary course based on a number of factors, including the timing of payments from our customers and payments to our suppliers.

Our credit facilities contain customary covenants, including restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, indebtedness, affiliate transactions, liens, dividends and distributions, dispositions of collateral, investments and prepayments of indebtedness, including in the U.S. revolving credit facility, a springing financial covenant that requires us to maintain a fixed charge coverage ratio of at least 1.0 to 1.0 any time availability under the U.S. revolving credit facility is less than or equal to $25.0 million, or 10% of the borrowing base but not less than $17.85 million. We intend to maintain availability to comply with these levels any time we would not meet the ratio, which could limit our ability to access the full amount of our availability under our U.S. revolving credit facility. Our Iceland revolving credit facility contains covenants that require Grundartangi to maintain a minimum equity ratio. As of December 31, 2022, we were in compliance with all such covenants or maintained availability above such covenant triggers.

Grundartangi Casthouse Facility

On November 2, 2021, in connection with the casthouse project at Grundartangi, we entered into an eight-year Term Facility Agreement with Arion Bank hf, to provide for borrowings up to $130.0 million (the “Casthouse Facility”). Under the Casthouse Facility, repayments of principal amounts will be made in equal quarterly installments equal to 1.739% of the principal amount, the first payment occurring in July 2024, with the remaining 60% of the principal amount to be paid no later than the termination date. The Casthouse Facility will mature in December 2029. The Casthouse Facility bears interest at a rate equal to USD LIBOR 3 month plus an applicable margin. The Casthouse Facility is secured by a $430.0 million general bond. As of December 31, 2022, there were $50.0 million in borrowings outstanding under the Casthouse Facility.

The Casthouse Facility also contains customary covenants, including restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, indebtedness, preservation of assets, and dispositions of assets and contains a covenant that requires Grundartangi to maintain a minimum equity ratio. As of December 31, 2022, we were in compliance with all such covenants or maintained availability above such covenant triggers.

Senior Notes and Convertible Senior Notes

We have $250.0 million principal of senior secured notes that mature on April 1, 2028, unless earlier refinanced in accordance with their terms. Interest on the 2028 Notes is payable semi-annually on April 1 and October 1 of each year, beginning on October 1, 2021, at a rate of 7.5% per year. The indenture governing the 2028 Notes contains customary covenants which may limit our ability, and the ability of certain of our subsidiaries, to: (i) incur additional debt; (ii) incur additional liens; (iii) pay dividends or make distributions in respect of capital stock; (iv) purchase or redeem capital stock; (v)

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make investments or certain other restricted payments; (vi) sell assets; (vii) issue or sell stock of certain subsidiaries; (viii) enter into transactions with shareholders or affiliates; and (ix) effect a consolidation or merger.

In April 2021, we issued $86.3 million in aggregate principal amount of Convertible Notes due 2028, unless earlier converted, repurchased or redeemed. The Convertible Notes bear interest semi-annually in arrears on May 1 and November 1 of each year, beginning on November 1, 2021, at a rate of 2.75% per annum in cash.

Iceland Term Facility

Our wholly-owned subsidiary, Grundartangi, entered into a Term Facility Agreement with Arion Bank hf, dated September 2022, (the "Iceland Term Facility") to provide for borrowings up to €13.6 million. Under the Iceland Term Facility, repayments of principal amounts will be made in equal monthly installments, the first payment occurring in February 2023, with the remainder of the principal amount to be paid no later than the termination date in January 2024. Borrowings under the Iceland Term Facility will bear interest at a rate equal to 3.2% plus EUR EURIBOR 1 month as published by the European Money Markets Institute. As of December 31, 2022, there were $14.5 million (€13.6 million) in outstanding borrowings under the Iceland Term Facility.

Vlissingen Facility Agreement

On December 9, 2022, Vlissingen entered into the Vlissingen Facility Agreement with Glencore International AG pursuant to which Vlissingen may borrow from time to time up to $90 million in one or more loans at a fixed interest rate equal to 8.75% per annum and payable on December 2, 2024. The obligations under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement are secured by liens on the ground lease on which Vlissingen’s facilities are located, Vlissingen’s moveable assets, financial assets, receivables and other assets, and Vlissingen’s shares. The Vlissingen Facility Agreement contains customary covenants, including with respect to mergers, guarantees and preservation and dispositions of assets. The availability period for borrowings under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement ends December 2, 2024. Amounts drawn, if any, under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement are expected to be used for general corporate and working capital purposes of Century and its subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2022, there were no outstanding borrowings under the Vlissingen Facility Agreement.

Supplemental Guarantor Financial Information

The Company has filed a Registration Statement on Form S-3 (the "Universal Shelf Registration Statement") with the SEC pursuant to which the Company may, from time to time, offer an indeterminate amount of securities, which may include securities that are guaranteed by certain of the Company's subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2022, we have not issued any debt securities pursuant to the Universal Shelf Registration Statement. However, any securities that we may issue in the future may limit our ability, and the ability of certain of our subsidiaries, to pay dividends or make distributions in respect of capital stock.

"Guarantor Subsidiaries" refers to all of our material domestic subsidiaries except for Nordural US LLC, Century Aluminum Development LLC and Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. The Guarantor Subsidiaries are 100% owned by Century. All guarantees will be full and unconditional; all guarantees will be joint and several. Our foreign subsidiaries, together with Nordural US LLC, Century Aluminum Development LLC and Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc., are collectively referred to as the "Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries". We allocate corporate expenses or income to our subsidiaries and charge interest on certain intercompany balances.

The following summarized financial information of both the Company and the Guarantor Subsidiaries ("Guarantors") is presented on a combined basis. Intercompany balances and transactions between the Company and the Guarantors have been eliminated and the summarized financial information does not reflect investments of the Company or the Guarantors in the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries. The Company’s or Guarantors’ amounts due from, amounts due to, and transactions with the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries are disclosed below:

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As of December 31, 2022 and December 31, 2021, an intercompany receivable due to the Company and Guarantors from the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries totaled $18.2 million and $15.1 million, respectively, and an intercompany non-current loan due to the Company from the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries totaled $466.3 million and $554.2 million, respectively.

Contingent Commitments

We have a contingent obligation in connection with the “unwind” of a contractual arrangement between Century Aluminum Kentucky ("CAKY"), Big Rivers and a third party and the execution of a long-term cost-based power contract with Kenergy, a member of a cooperative of Big Rivers, in July 2009. This contingent obligation consists of the aggregate payments made to Big Rivers by the third party on CAKY’s behalf in excess of the agreed upon base amount under the long-term cost-based power contract with Kenergy.  As of December 31, 2022, the principal and accrued interest for the contingent obligation was $29.5 million, which was fully offset by a derivative asset. We may be required to make installment payments for the contingent obligation in the future. These payments are contingent based on the LME price of primary aluminum and the level of Hawesville’s operations. Based on the LME forward market at December 31, 2022 and our expected level of Hawesville's operations, we believe that we will not be required to make payments on the contingent obligation during the term of the agreement, which expires in 2028. There can be no assurance that circumstances will not change thus accelerating the timing of such payments.

Employee Benefit Plan Contributions

In 2013, we entered into a settlement agreement with the Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation (the "PBGC") regarding an alleged "cessation of operations" at our Ravenswood facility (the "PBGC Settlement Agreement"). Pursuant to the terms of the PBGC Settlement Agreement, we agreed to make additional contributions (above any minimum required contributions) to our defined benefit pension plans totaling approximately $17.4 million. Under certain circumstances, in periods of lower primary aluminum prices relative to our cost of operations, we were able to defer one or more of these payments, provided that we provide the PBGC with acceptable security for such deferred payments. We did not make any contributions during the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020. We historically elected to defer certain payments under the PBGC Settlement Agreement and provided the PBGC with the appropriate security. On October 1, 2021, we amended the PBGC Settlement Agreement (the "Amended PBGC Settlement Agreement") such that we removed the deferral mechanism and agreed to contribute approximately $2.4 million per year to our defined benefit pension plans for a total of approximately $9.6 million, over four years beginning on November 30, 2022 and ending on November 30, 2025, subject to acceleration if certain terms and conditions are met in such amendment. As of December 31, 2022, we made contributions of $2.4 million related to the Amended PBGC Settlement Agreement.

Section 232 Aluminum Tariff

On March 23, 2018, the U.S. implemented a 10% tariff on imported primary aluminum products into the U.S. These tariffs are intended to protect U.S. national security and incentivize the restart of primary aluminum production in the U.S., reducing reliance on imports and ensuring that domestic producers, like Century, can supply all the aluminum necessary for critical industries and national defense.  In addition to primary aluminum products, the tariffs also cover certain other semi-finished products. All imports that directly compete with our products are covered by the tariff, with the exception of imports from Australia, Canada and Mexico. Additionally, primary aluminum imports from Argentina are allowed up to an annual quota limit of 169,000 metric tonnes, the first 18,000 metric tonnes of imports from the European Union and the first 900 metric tonnes of imports from the United Kingdom are also allowed duty free. Imports that receive a product exclusion from the Department of Commerce may also enter the US duty free. In July 2022, the International Trade Commission (ITC) initiated a review of the Section 301 and 232 duties as required by law every four years. The process will conclude no later than March 15, 2023.

Other Items

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On January 17, 2023, our wholly owned subsidiary, Mt. Holly Commerce Park LLC, entered into a binding agreement, subject to ordinary course conditions, to sell approximately 133 acres of land for approximately $28.5 million. We previously formed the commerce park, located near our Mt. Holly smelter, to develop excess land at the site and to assist the county with bringing additional business and commerce to the area.

During 2021, we initiated efforts to restart the curtailed capacity at our Mt. Holly facility. The project was completed during the second quarter of 2022, resulting in total production of 75% of Mt. Holly's full capacity.

During 2021, we announced plans for construction of a new billet casthouse at Grundartangi. The Grundartangi casthouse project began in late 2021 and is expected to continue through the second half of 2023. The Grundartangi casthouse project will be fully funded through the Casthouse Facility. The project is progressing and is expected to be completed on-time and on-budget, subject to market conditions.

In October 2021, Nordural Helguvik ehf ("Helguvik"), a past subsidiary of ours and owner of the former Helguvik project site which has been curtailed since 2008, filed for bankruptcy and on October 28, 2021, a district court in Iceland issued a verdict declaring bankruptcy of Helguvik. We recognized a deferred tax asset and recorded a discrete tax benefit of $49.8 million related to the future tax benefit we expect to realize for deductible costs related to our historical investment in Helguvik. There are no other financial statement impacts as a result of the bankruptcy filing.

In 2011, our Board of Directors approved a $60.0 million common stock repurchase program and subsequently increased this program by $70.0 million in the first quarter of 2015. Under the program, Century is authorized to repurchase up to $130.0 million of our outstanding shares of common stock, from time to time, on the open market at prevailing market prices, in block trades or otherwise. The timing and amount of any shares repurchased will be determined by our management based on its evaluation of market conditions, the trading price of our common stock and other factors. We made no repurchases during the years ended 2022, 2021, and 2020. As of December 31, 2022, we had $43.7 million remaining under the repurchase program authorization. The repurchase program may be expanded, suspended or discontinued by our Board, in its sole discretion, at any time.

In November 2009, Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. ("CAWV") filed a class action complaint for declaratory judgment against the United Steel, Paper and Forestry, Rubber, Manufacturing, Energy, Allied Industrial and Service Workers International Union ("USW"), the USW’s local and certain CAWV retirees, individually and as class representatives ("CAWV Retirees"), seeking a declaration of CAWV’s rights to modify/terminate retiree medical benefits.  Later in November 2009, the USW and representatives of a retiree class filed a separate suit against CAWV, Century Aluminum Company, Century Aluminum Master Welfare Benefit Plan, and various John Does with respect to the foregoing. On August 18, 2017, the District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia approved a settlement agreement in respect of these actions, pursuant to which, CAWV agreed to make payments into a trust for the benefit of the CAWV Retirees in the aggregate amount of $23.0 million over the course of ten years. Upon approval of the settlement, we paid $5.0 million to the aforementioned trust in September 2017 and agreed to pay the remaining amounts under the settlement agreement in annual increments of $2.0 million for nine years. At December 31, 2022, we had $2.0 million in other current liabilities and $4.8 million in other liabilities related to this agreement.

We are a defendant in several actions relating to various aspects of our business. While it is impossible to predict the ultimate disposition of any litigation, we do not believe that any of these lawsuits, either individually or in the aggregate, will have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations or liquidity. See Note 16. Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Capital Resources

We intend to finance our future capital expenditures from available cash, cash flow from operations and if necessary, borrowings under our existing revolving credit facilities. For major investment projects, we would likely seek financing from various capital and loan markets and may potentially pursue the formation of strategic alliances. We may be unable, however, to issue additional debt or equity securities, or enter into other financing arrangements on attractive terms, or at all, due to a number of factors including a lack of demand, unfavorable pricing, poor economic conditions, unfavorable interest rates, or our financial condition or credit rating at the time. Future uncertainty in the U.S. and international markets and economies may adversely affect our liquidity, our ability to access the debt or capital markets and our financial condition.

Capital expenditures incurred for the year ended December 31, 2022 were $17.3 million, excluding expenditures of $16.2 million associated with the restart at Mt. Holly and $40.0 million associated with the Grundartangi casthouse project. We

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estimate our total capital spending in 2023, excluding the Grundartangi casthouse project, will be approximately $24 million, related to our ongoing investment and sustainability projects at our plants.

Critical Accounting Estimates

Our significant accounting policies are described in Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements.  The preparation of the financial statements requires that management make judgments, assumptions and estimates in applying these accounting policies.  Those judgments are normally based on knowledge and experience about past and current events and on assumptions about future events.  Critical accounting estimates require management to make assumptions about matters that are highly uncertain at the time of the estimate and a change in these estimates may have a material impact on our financial position or results of operations.  Significant judgments and estimates made by our management include expenses and liabilities related to inventories, pensions and other postretirement benefits ("OPEB"), deferred tax assets and property, plant and equipment.  Our management has discussed the development and selection of these critical accounting estimates with the audit committee of our Board of Directors and the Audit Committee has reviewed our disclosure.

Inventories

Our inventories are stated at lower of cost or net realizable value ("NRV").

Our estimate of the market value of our inventories involves establishing a net realizable value for both finished goods and the components of inventory that will be converted to finished goods, raw materials and work in process. This requires management to use its judgment when making assumptions about future selling prices and the costs to complete our inventory during the period in which it will be sold.

Our assumptions are subject to inherent uncertainties given the volatility surrounding the market price for primary aluminum sales and the market price for our major inputs, alumina and electrical power.

Although we believe that the assumptions used to estimate the market value of our inventory are reasonable, actual market conditions at the time our inventory is sold may be more or less favorable than management’s current estimates.

Pension and Other Postretirement Benefit Liabilities

We sponsor several pension and OPEB plans.  Our liabilities under these defined benefit plans are determined using methodologies that involve several actuarial assumptions, the most significant of which are the discount rate and the long-term rate of return on plan assets. We review our actuarial assumptions on an annual basis and make modifications to the assumptions when appropriate.

Discount Rate Selection

We select a discount rate for purposes of measuring obligations under defined benefit plans by matching cash flows separately for each plan to the yields on high-quality zero coupon bonds.  We use the Ryan Above Median Yield Curve (the "Ryan Curve"). We believe the projected cash flows used to determine the Ryan Curve rate provide a good approximation of the timing and amounts of our defined benefit payments under our plans and no adjustment to the Ryan Curve rate has been made.

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A change of a half percentage point in the discount rate for our defined benefit plans would have the following effects on our obligations under these plans as of December 31, 2022:

Long-term Rate of Return on Plan Assets Assumption

Our expected long-term rate of return on plan assets is derived from our asset allocation strategies and anticipated future long-term performance of individual asset classes. Our analysis gives consideration to recent plan performance and historical returns; however, the assumptions are primarily based on long-term, prospective rates of return. The weighted average long-term rate of return on plan assets for our defined benefit pension plans is 7.25% for 2022.

Based on information provided by independent actuaries and other relevant sources, the Company believes that the assumptions used to estimate expenses, assets and liabilities of pensions and other postretirement benefits are reasonable; however, changes in these assumptions could impact the Company’s financial position, results of operations or cash flows.

Deferred Income Tax Assets

We regularly assess the likelihood that deferred tax assets will be recovered from future taxable income. To the extent we believe that it is more likely than not that a deferred tax asset will not be realized, a valuation allowance is established.  The amount of a valuation allowance is based upon our best estimate of our ability to realize the net deferred tax assets.  We have a valuation allowance of $487.9 million recorded against our net U.S. deferred tax assets and a portion of our Icelandic deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2022.

Property, Plant and Equipment Impairment

We review our property, plant and equipment for impairment whenever events or circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of these assets (asset group) may not be recoverable.  The carrying amount of the assets (asset group) is not recoverable if it exceeds the sum of the undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the assets (asset group).  In that case, an impairment loss would be recognized for the amount by which the carrying amount exceeds the fair value of the assets (asset group), with the fair value determined using a discounted cash flow calculation.  These estimates of future cash flows include management’s assumptions about the expected use of the assets (asset group), the remaining useful life, expenditures to maintain the service potential, market and cost assumptions.

Determination as to whether and how much an asset is impaired involves significant management judgment involving highly uncertain matters, including estimating the future sales volumes, future selling prices and estimated raw material and conversion costs, alternative uses for the asset, and estimated proceeds from the disposal of the asset.

Recently Issued Accounting Standards Updates

Information regarding recently issued accounting pronouncements is included in Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements included herein.

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Contractual Obligations

In the normal course of business, we have entered into various contractual obligations that will be settled in cash. These obligations consist primarily of long-term debt obligations and purchase obligations.  The expected future cash flows required to meet these obligations through the year 2031 are shown in the table below.  More information is available about these contractual obligations in the notes to the consolidated financial statements included herein.

(1)Long-term debt includes principal repayments on our 2028 Notes, Convertible Notes, the Casthouse Facility, the IRB and the Iceland Term Facility.  Payments are based on the assumption that all outstanding debt instruments will remain outstanding until their respective due dates.  For our contingent obligation, based on the LME forward market prices for primary aluminum at December 31, 2022 and expected Hawesville operating levels, we believe that we will not have any payment obligations through the term of the agreement, which expires in 2028.

(2)Estimated interest payments on our long-term debt assume that all outstanding debt instruments will remain outstanding until their respective due dates.  Our estimated future interest payments for any debt with a variable rate are based on the assumption that the December 31, 2022 rate for that debt continues until the respective due date.  We assume that no interest payments on the contingent obligation will be paid through the term of agreement, see above.

(3)Operating leases include long-term leases for land, office space, automobiles, and mobile equipment.

(4)Purchase obligations include long-term alumina and power contracts, excluding market-based power and raw material requirements contracts.  Purchase obligations not executed or legally binding as of December 31, 2022 have been excluded from this table.  For contracts with LME-based pricing provisions, including our long-term Icelandic power contracts, we assumed an LME price using the LME forward curve as of December 31, 2022.

(5)Other long-term liabilities include asset retirement obligations.  Asset retirement obligations are primarily estimated disposal costs for spent potliner used in the reduction cells of our domestic smelters.

Material Commitments

We also have outstanding commitments related to pension, supplemental executive retirement benefit ("SERB") plans, OPEB and workers' compensation obligations. As of December 31, 2022, estimated future payments related to these obligations through the year 2032 amount to approximately $180.8 million, $16.3 million, $59.2 million and $9.6 million, respectively.

Item 7. Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

This Management’s Discussion and Analysis (“MD&A”) provides information that management believes is relevant to an assessment and understanding of the consolidated financial condition and results of operations of Century Aluminum Company and its subsidiaries (collectively, “Century,” the “Company,” “our” and “we”) and should be read in conjunction with the accompanying consolidated financial statements and related notes thereto in Item 8. Financial Statements and Supplementary Data and in Item 1A. Risk Factors. This MD&A contains “forward-looking statements” - See “Forward-Looking Statements” above.

Overview

We are a global producer of primary aluminum with aluminum reduction facilities, or "smelters," in the United States and Iceland. The key determinants of our results of operations and cash flow from operations are as follows:

•the price of primary aluminum, which is based on the London Metal Exchange ("LME") and other exchanges, plus any regional premiums and value-added product premiums;

•the cost of goods sold, the principal components of which are electrical power, alumina, carbon products and labor, which in aggregate represent more than 75% of our cost of goods sold; and

•our production volume.

Pricing of aluminum

The overall price of primary aluminum consists of three components: (i) the base commodity price, which is based on quoted prices on the LME and other exchanges; plus (ii) any regional premium (e.g., the Midwest premium for metal sold in the United States ("MWP") and the European Duty Paid premium for metal sold into Europe); plus (iii) any value-added product premium. Each of these price components has its own drivers and variability.

The aluminum price is influenced by a number of factors, including global supply-demand balance, inventory levels, speculative activities by market participants, production activities by competitors and political and economic conditions, as well as production costs in major production regions. These factors can be highly speculative and difficult to predict which can lead to significant volatility in the aluminum price. Increases or decreases in primary aluminum prices result in increases and decreases in our revenues (assuming all other factors are unchanged). From time to time, we may seek to manage our exposure to fluctuations in the LME price of primary aluminum and/or associated regional premiums through financial instruments designed to protect our downside price risk exposure. Information regarding financial contracts is included in Note 18. Derivatives and risks affiliated with such financial contracts are disclosed specifically in Item 1A. Risk Factors.

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The historic volatility of the price of aluminum is reflected in the chart below:

We have seen meaningful increases in the pricing of aluminum throughout 2021. The average LME price for primary aluminum was $2,475 per tonne in 2021, compared to $1,702 per tonne in 2020, and $1,792 in 2019. The average MWP price was $581 per tonne in 2021 compared to $267 per tonne in 2020 and $396 per tonne in 2019. The average European Duty Paid premium was $272 per tonne in 2021 compared to $126 per tonne in 2020 and $142 per tonne in 2019.

Energy, Key Supplies and Raw Materials

Our operating costs are significantly impacted by changes in the prices of the materials used in the production of aluminum, including alumina, electrical power and carbon products. These costs may be subject to increasing inflationary pressures, which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Because we sell our products based principally on the LME price for primary aluminum, regional premiums and value-added product premiums, we are unable to pass increased production costs on to our customers. Although we attempt to mitigate the effects of price fluctuations from time to time through the use of various fixed-price commitments, financial instruments and also by negotiating LME-based pricing in some of our raw materials and electrical power contracts, these efforts also limit our ability to take advantage of favorable changes in the market prices for primary aluminum or raw materials and may affect our financial position, results of operations and cash flows.

Alumina and electrical power represent the two largest components of our cost of goods sold. As a result, the availability of these cost components at competitive prices is critical to the profitability of our operations. The pricing under our alumina supply contracts varies from contract to contract. A major portion of our alumina requirements is indexed to the price of primary aluminum, which provides a natural hedge to one of our largest production costs. We also purchase alumina based on a published alumina index and at fixed prices. The alumina price is influenced by a number of factors, including global supply-demand balance, natural disasters and weather events, and other factors outside of our control. The average market alumina index price as a percentage of market LME price per tonne for 2021 was 13% compared to 16% for 2020 and 19% for 2019.

Electrical power is our other largest operating cost. Currently, our Hawesville and Sebree plants receive all of their electricity requirements under market-based power agreements and Grundartangi receives 30% of its electricity requirements from market-based power agreements. Market-based energy prices are driven in large part by the price of coal, natural gas, and

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other fuel sources, weather influenced reservoir or generation levels for wind, solar and hydro production and weather-influenced electric loads. Extreme weather events, such as that experienced in mid-February 2021 throughout the United States or the low rain levels experienced in Nordic regions during winter 2021, can result in low generation, power outages and/or significant increases in demand, which may result in significant increased power costs incurred in our operations.

Prior to April 2021, our Mt. Holly aluminum smelter was a party to both a power agreement with a third party supplier (providing 75% of Mt. Holly's power) and with Santee Cooper (supplying 25% of Mt. Holly's power) to supply the Mt. Holly smelter with all its power needs. Our Mt. Holly plant now has a power supply agreement with Santee Cooper that runs through December 2023. Under this power supply agreement, 100% of Mt. Holly’s electrical power requirements are supplied from Santee Cooper’s generation at cost of service based rates. The contract provides sufficient energy to allow the Mt. Holly smelter to reach 75% of full production capacity upon completion of the restart project.

In Iceland, approximately 70% of the power requirements for our Grundartangi plant are indexed to the price of primary aluminum, which provides a natural hedge of one of our largest production costs. The price of the remaining 30% of Grundartangi’s power requirements is linked to the market price for power in the Nord Pool power market, the trading market for power in the Nordic countries and certain other areas of Europe, through December 2023. In July 2021, the contract was extended for the period January 1, 2024 through December 31, 2026 with pricing at fixed rates.

Production/Shipment Volumes

Shipment volume is another key determinant of our financial results.  In normal circumstances, fluctuations in production and shipment volumes, other than through acquisitions or expansions, are generally small period over period. Any adverse changes in the conditions that affect shipment volumes could have a material adverse effect on our results of operations and cash flows.

The following table sets forth, for the periods indicated, the shipment volumes and revenues for primary aluminum shipments:

(1) Excludes scrap aluminum and alumina sales

Results of Operations

Year Ended December 31, 2021 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2020

Net sales: Net sales (excluding alumina sales) increased by $603.6 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2021, compared to the same period in 2020, primarily driven by favorable LME and regional premium price realizations of $640.9 million, partially offset by unfavorable volume and product mix of $37.4 million.

Gross profit (loss): Gross profit increased by $160.8 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2021, compared to the same period in 2020, primarily driven by favorable LME and regional premium price realizations of $640.9 million, partially offset by unfavorable power price realizations of $251.1 million, unfavorable raw material price realizations of $99.1

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million, unfavorable volume impacts of $23.7 million and increased operating costs of $108.3 million driven by higher labor and supplies costs, both primarily related to our restart projects at Mt. Holly and Hawesville.

Selling, general and administrative expenses: Selling, general and administrative expenses increased $14.1 million in 2021 compared to 2020, primarily due to increases in share-based compensation due to fluctuations of the stock price period over period and other compensation costs.

Net loss on forward and derivative contracts: In 2021, we recognized losses of $212.4 million primarily related to LME, MWP and Nord Pool fixed forward financial sales contracts. The losses were primarily driven by increases in LME and MWP forward prices. In 2020, we recognized losses of $17.3 million primarily related to LME and MWP fixed forward financial sales contracts. The losses were primarily driven by fluctuations in forward prices. See Note 18. Derivatives to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Income tax expense (benefit): We have a valuation allowance against all of our U.S. and certain foreign deferred tax assets. We recognized a $30.6 million income tax benefit in 2021 as compared to income tax benefit of $3.1 million in 2020. The period-to-period change is primarily related to a discrete tax benefit of $49.8 million related to the recognition of certain foreign deferred tax assets. The deferred tax asset represents the future tax benefit we expect to realize for deductible costs related to our historical investment in Nordural Helguvik ehf (“Helguvik”). During the period, it became apparent this deferred tax asset would be realized in the foreseeable future. As this deferred tax asset is expected to be realized prior to expiration, we have not recorded a valuation allowance. See Note 14. Income Taxes to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Year Ended December 31, 2020 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2019

Net sales: Net sales (excluding alumina sales) decreased by $220.2 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2020, compared to the same period in 2019, primarily driven by unfavorable LME and regional premium price realizations of $188.6 million and unfavorable volume and product mix of $31.6 million.

Gross profit (loss): Gross loss increased by $12.6 million for the twelve months ended December 31, 2020, compared to the same period in 2019, primarily driven by unfavorable LME and regional premium price realizations of $188.6 million. The increases to gross loss were offset by favorable raw material price realizations of $178.6 million.

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Selling, general and administrative expenses: Selling, general and administrative expenses decreased $3.9 million in 2020 compared to 2019, primarily due to decreases in compensation cost in the current year, partially offset by increases in professional fees.

Net (gain) loss on forward and derivative contracts: In 2020, we recognized losses of $17.3 million primarily related to LME, MWP and Nord Pool fixed forward financial sales contracts. The losses were primarily driven by fluctuations in forward prices. In 2019, we had recognized gains of $12.0 million primarily related to LME and MWP fixed forward financial sales contracts. The gains were primarily driven by decreases in the LME and MWP prices during 2019.

Income tax expense (benefit): We have a valuation allowance against all of our U.S. and certain foreign deferred tax assets. We recognized an $3.1 million income tax benefit in 2020 as compared to income tax benefit of $8.4 million in 2019. The increase in income tax benefit year over year primarily relates to a decrease in earnings of certain of our foreign entities.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Liquidity

Our principal sources of liquidity are available cash and cash flow from operations. We also have access to our existing U.S. and Iceland revolving credit facilities (collectively, the "revolving credit facilities") and have raised capital in the past through public equity and debt markets. We regularly explore various other financing alternatives. Our principal uses of cash include the funding of operating costs (including post-retirement benefits), debt service requirements, capital expenditures, investments in our growth activities and in related businesses, working capital and other general corporate requirements.

We believe that cash provided from operations and financing activities will be adequate to cover our operations and business needs over the next 12 months. As of December 31, 2021, we had cash and cash equivalents of approximately $29.0 million and unused availability under our revolving credit facilities of $70.5 million, resulting in a total liquidity position of approximately $99.5 million.

On April 14, 2021, we issued $250.0 million in aggregate principal amount of our 7.5% senior secured notes that will mature in 2028 (the "2028 Notes") and used a portion of the proceeds to purchase $195.9 million of our 12.0% senior secured notes due 2025 (the "2025 Notes") pursuant to a cash tender offer for the 2025 Notes. On April 9, 2021, we issued $86.3 million in aggregate principal amount of convertible senior notes due 2028 (the "Convertible Notes"). The remaining proceeds from the issuance of the 2028 Notes and a portion of the proceeds from the issuance of the Convertible Notes were used to redeem the remaining 2025 Notes on May 14, 2021. The remaining proceeds from the Convertible Notes offering were used to repay borrowings under our revolving credit facilities and to pay for the cost of the capped call transactions in connection with the issuance of the Convertible Notes. With these transactions, we have effectively extended the maturities of our principal debt obligations, reduced the interest rate on these obligations, and raised additional liquidity through the issuance of the Convertible Notes.

Available Cash

Our available cash and cash equivalents balance at December 31, 2021 was $29.0 million compared to $81.6 million at December 31, 2020.

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Sources and Uses of Cash

Our cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities as reflected in the consolidated statement of cash flows for the twelve months ended December 31, 2021, 2020 and 2019 are summarized below:

Year Ended December 31, 2021 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2020

Net cash used in operating activities for 2021 was $64.7 million, compared to cash provided by operating activities of $42.9 million in 2020. The change in net cash used in operating activities was driven by increasing raw material prices, increasing power prices, higher labor costs, increases in working capital, and hedge settlements, partially offset by higher realized aluminum prices.

The increase in net cash used in investing activities during 2021 was primarily due to higher spending on capital projects during the twelve months ended December 31, 2021, driven by capital investments in the Mt. Holly restart project.

Net cash provided by financing activities increased by $90.2 million in 2021 compared to 2020 primarily due to increased borrowings on the revolving credit facilities primarily used to fund working capital and the Mt. Holly restart project and issuance of the Convertible Notes.

Year Ended December 31, 2020 Compared to Year December 31, 2019

Net cash provided by operating activities for 2020 was $42.9 million, compared to $17.7 million for 2019. The increase in net cash provided by operating activities was primarily driven by improvements in working capital. The improvements in working capital were primarily attributable to timing of raw material receipts and the timing of trade receivable collections, offset by increasing raw material prices.

The decrease in net cash used in investing activities during 2020 was due to lower capital expenditures related to Hawesville restart activities and deferral of capital projects in response to COVID-19.

Net cash provided by financing activities decreased by $7.6 million during 2020 primarily due to payments made on our term loan with Glencore Ltd. (the "Hawesville Term Loan"), offset by net borrowings on our U.S. revolving credit facility and Iceland revolving credit facility. Borrowings on our revolving credit facilities are available, if needed, for working capital requirements, general corporate or other purposes.

Availability under Our Credit Facilities

Our U.S. revolving credit facility, dated May 2018 (as amended, the "U.S. revolving credit facility"), originally provided for borrowings of up to $175.0 million in the aggregate. On December 23, 2021, we entered into a Third Amendment to our existing $175.0 million U.S. revolving credit facility and exercised a portion of the uncommitted accordion feature in the amount of $45.0 million, increasing the maximum capacity from $175.0 million to $220.0 million, including up to $110.0 million under a letter of credit sub-facility. The U.S. revolving credit facility matures in May 2023. Any letters of credit issued and outstanding under the U.S. revolving credit facility reduce our borrowing availability on a dollar-for-dollar basis.

We have also entered into, through our wholly-owned subsidiary Nordural Grundartangi ehf ("Grundartangi"), a revolving credit facility, dated November 2013, as amended (the "Iceland revolving credit facility") which originally provided for borrowings of up to $50.0 million in the aggregate. On February 4, 2022, we further amended this Iceland revolving credit facility and increased the facility amount to $80.0 million in the aggregate. The Iceland revolving credit facility matures November 2024.

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The availability of funds under our revolving credit facilities is limited by a specified borrowing base consisting of certain accounts receivable, inventory and qualified cash deposits which meet the lenders' eligibility criteria. Increases in the price of aluminum and/or restarts of previously curtailed operations, for example, increase our borrowing base by increasing our accounts receivable and inventory balances; decreases in the price of aluminum and/or curtailments of production capacity would decrease our borrowing base by reducing our accounts receivable and inventory balances. As of December 31, 2021, our U.S. revolving credit facility had a borrowing base of $215.2 million, $63.6 million in outstanding borrowings, and $81.1 million in letters of credit outstanding. Of the outstanding letters of credit, $12.1 million related to our power commitments, $51.0 million are related to hedging collateral, and the remainder are primarily for the purpose of securing certain secured debt and workers’ compensation commitments. As of December 31, 2021, our Iceland revolving credit facility had a borrowing base of $50.0 million and $50.0 million in outstanding borrowings.

As of December 31, 2021, our revolving credit facilities had $70.5 million of net availability after consideration of our outstanding borrowings and letters of credit. We may borrow and make repayments under our revolving credit facilities in the ordinary course based on a number of factors, including the timing of payments from our customers and payments to our suppliers.

Our revolving credit facilities contain customary covenants, including restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, indebtedness, affiliate transactions, liens, dividends and distributions, dispositions of collateral, investments and prepayments of indebtedness, including in the U.S. revolving credit facility, a springing financial covenant that requires us to maintain a fixed charge coverage ratio of at least 1.0 to 1.0 any time availability under the U.S. revolving credit facility is less than or equal to $22.0 million, or 10% of the borrowing base but not less than $12.5 million. We intend to maintain availability to comply with these levels any time we would not meet the ratio, which could limit our ability to access the full amount of our availability under our U.S. revolving credit facility. Our Iceland revolving credit facility contains covenants that require Grundartangi to maintain a minimum equity ratio. As of December 31, 2021, we were in compliance with all such covenants or maintained availability above such covenant triggers.

Grundartangi Casthouse Facility

On November 2, 2021, in connection with the casthouse project at Grundartangi, we entered into an eight-year Term Facility Agreement with Arion Bank hf, to provide for borrowings up to $130.0 million (the “Casthouse Facility”). Under the Casthouse Facility, repayments of principal amounts will be made in equal quarterly installments equal to 1.818% of the principal amount, the first payment occurring 30 months after the first drawdown by Grundartangi, with the remaining 60% of the principal amount to be paid no later than the termination date. The Casthouse Facility shall mature 8 years following the first drawdown date. The Casthouse Facility bears interest at a rate equal to USD LIBOR 3 month plus an applicable margin. The Casthouse Facility is secured by a $430.0 million general bond. As of December 31, 2021, there were no borrowings outstanding under the Casthouse Facility.

The Casthouse Facility also contains customary covenants, including restrictions on mergers and acquisitions, indebtedness, preservation of assets, and dispositions of assets and contains a covenant that requires Grundartangi to maintain a minimum equity ratio. As of December 31, 2021, we were in compliance with all such covenants or maintained availability above such covenant triggers.

Senior Secured Notes and Convertible Senior Notes

We have $250.0 million principal of senior secured notes that mature on April 1, 2028, unless earlier refinanced in accordance with their terms. Interest on the 2028 Notes is payable semi-annually on April 1 and October 1 of each year, beginning on October 1, 2021, at a rate of 7.5% per year. The indenture governing the 2028 Notes contains customary covenants which may limit our ability, and the ability of certain of our subsidiaries, to: (i) incur additional debt; (ii) incur additional liens; (iii) pay dividends or make distributions in respect of capital stock; (iv) purchase or redeem capital stock; (v) make investments or certain other restricted payments; (vi) sell assets; (vii) issue or sell stock of certain subsidiaries; (viii) enter into transactions with shareholders or affiliates; and (ix) effect a consolidation or merger.

In April 2021, we issued $86.3 million in aggregate principal amount of Convertible Notes, unless earlier converted, repurchased or redeemed. The principal included the full exercise of the option by the initial purchasers of the Convertible Notes to purchase $11.3 million of additional principal amount. The Convertible Notes bear interest semi-annually in arrears on May 1 and November 1 of each year, beginning on November 1, 2021, at a rate of 2.75% per annum in cash.

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We applied the net proceeds from the offering of the 2028 Notes and a portion of the net proceeds from the Convertible Notes described above toward payment of the total consideration amount to holders whose 2025 Notes were accepted and purchased in the tender offer and to fund the redemption of any remaining 2025 Notes.

Supplemental Guarantor Financial Information

The Company has filed a Registration Statement on Form S-3 (the "Universal Shelf Registration Statement") with the SEC pursuant to which the Company may, from time to time, offer an indeterminate amount of securities, which may include securities that are guaranteed by certain of the Company's subsidiaries. As of December 31, 2021, we have not issued any debt securities pursuant to the Universal Shelf Registration Statement. However, the securities that we may issue in the future may limit the ability of certain of our subsidiaries to pay dividends or make distributions in respect of capital stock.

"Guarantor Subsidiaries" refers to all of our material domestic subsidiaries except for Nordural US LLC, Century Aluminum Development LLC and Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. The Guarantor Subsidiaries are 100% owned by Century. All guarantees will be full and unconditional; all guarantees will be joint and several. Our foreign subsidiaries, together with Nordural US LLC, Century Aluminum Development LLC and Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc., are collectively referred to as the "Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries". We allocate corporate expenses or income to our subsidiaries and charge interest on certain intercompany balances.

The following summarized financial information of both the Company and the Guarantor Subsidiaries ("Guarantors") is presented on a combined basis. Intercompany balances and transactions between the Company and the Guarantors have been eliminated and the summarized financial information does not reflect investments of the Company or the Guarantors in the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries. The Company’s or Guarantors’ amounts due from, amounts due to, and transactions with the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries are disclosed below:

As of December 31, 2021 and December 31, 2020, an intercompany receivable due to the Company and Guarantors from the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries totaled $15.1 million and $14.6 million, respectively, and an intercompany non-current loan due to the Company from the Non-Guarantor Subsidiaries totaled $544.2 million and $554.9 million, respectively.

Contingent Commitments

We have a contingent obligation in connection with the “unwind” of a contractual arrangement between Century Aluminum Kentucky ("CAKY"), Big Rivers and a third party and the execution of a long-term cost-based power contract with Kenergy, a member of a cooperative of Big Rivers, in July 2009. This contingent obligation consists of the aggregate payments made to Big Rivers by the third party on CAKY’s behalf in excess of the agreed upon base amount under the long-term cost-based power contract with Kenergy.  As of December 31, 2021, the principal and accrued interest for the contingent obligation was $28.1 million, which was fully offset by a derivative asset. We may be required to make installment payments for the contingent obligation in the future. These payments are contingent based on the LME price of primary aluminum and the level of Hawesville’s operations. Based on the LME forward market at December 31, 2021 and current level of Hawesville's operations, we believe that we will not be required to make payments on the contingent obligation during the term of the

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agreement, which expires in 2028. There can be no assurance that circumstances will not change thus accelerating the timing of such payments.

Employee Benefit Plan Contributions

In 2013, we entered into a settlement agreement with the Pension Benefit Guarantee Corporation (the "PBGC") regarding an alleged "cessation of operations" at our Ravenswood facility (the "PBGC Settlement Agreement"). Pursuant to the terms of the PBGC Settlement Agreement, we agreed to make additional contributions (above any minimum required contributions) to our defined benefit pension plans totaling approximately $17.4 million. Under certain circumstances, in periods of lower primary aluminum prices relative to our cost of operations, we were able to defer one or more of these payments, provided that we provide the PBGC with acceptable security for such deferred payments. We did not make any contributions during the years ended December 31, 2021, 2020 and 2019. We historically elected to defer certain payments under the PBGC Settlement Agreement and provided the PBGC with the appropriate security. On October 1, 2021, we amended the PBGC Settlement Agreement such that we removed the deferral mechanism and agreed to contribute approximately $2.4 million per year to our defined benefit pension plans for a total of approximately $9.6 million, over the next four years beginning on November 30, 2022 and ending on November 30, 2025, subject to acceleration if certain terms and conditions are met in such amendment.

Section 232 Aluminum Tariff

On March 23, 2018, the U.S. implemented a 10% tariff on imported primary aluminum products into the U.S. These tariffs are intended to protect U.S. national security by incentivizing the restart of primary aluminum production in the U.S., reducing reliance on imports and ensuring that domestic producers, like Century, can supply all the aluminum necessary for critical industries and national defense.  In addition to primary aluminum products, the tariffs also cover certain other semi-finished products. All imports that directly compete with our products are covered by the tariff, with the exception of imports from Australia, Argentina, Canada and Mexico and imports from the European Union up to a quota limit of 18,000 metric tonnes or imports that receive a product exclusion from the Department of Commerce.

Other Items

We are currently in the process of a multi-year project that began in 2018 to restart Hawesville's previously curtailed capacity and return the plant to a production level of approximately 200,000 MT per annum (80% of capacity). As of December 31, 2021, we are finished with these efforts and are producing at approximately 80% of Hawesville’s capacity. The rebuild of the fifth and final potline is expected to be completed over the next several years subject to market conditions.

During 2021, we initiated efforts to restart the curtailed capacity at our Mt. Holly facility, resulting in total production of 75% of Mt. Holly’s full capacity once the restart project is completed. Restart work at the Mt. Holly smelter is progressing and is expected to be completed in the second quarter of 2022, subject to market conditions.

During 2021, we announced plans for construction of a new billet casthouse at Grundartangi. The Grundartangi casthouse project began in late 2021 and is expected to continue through the first quarter of 2024. The Grundartangi casthouse project will be fully funded through the Casthouse Facility.

In May 2018, we temporarily curtailed one potline at our Sebree aluminum smelter due to an equipment failure. Sebree was returned to full capacity by the end of the third quarter of 2018. As of December 31, 2020, we received $19.9 million of insurance proceeds related to a policy covering the equipment failure. In January 2021, the claims process was concluded and a final payment of $1.4 million of insurance proceeds was received.

In October 2021, Nordural Helguvik ehf ("Helguvik"), a past subsidiary of ours and owner of the former Helguvik project site which has been curtailed since 2008, filed for bankruptcy and on October 28, 2021, a district court in Iceland issued a verdict declaring bankruptcy of Helguvik. We recognized a deferred tax asset and recorded a discrete tax benefit of $49.8 million related to the future tax benefit we expect to realize for deductible costs related to our historical investment in Helguvik. There are no other financial statement impacts as a result of the bankruptcy filing.

In 2011, our Board of Directors approved a $60.0 million common stock repurchase program and subsequently increased this program by $70.0 million in the first quarter of 2015. Under the program, Century is authorized to repurchase up to $130.0 million of our outstanding shares of common stock, from time to time, on the open market at prevailing market prices, in block trades or otherwise. The timing and amount of any shares repurchased will be determined by our management based on its evaluation of market conditions, the trading price of our common stock and other factors. We made no repurchases during the years ended 2021, 2020, and 2019. As of December 31, 2021, we had $43.7 million remaining under the repurchase program

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authorization. The repurchase program may be expanded, suspended or discontinued by our Board, in its sole discretion, at any time.

In November 2009, Century Aluminum of West Virginia, Inc. ("CAWV") filed a class action complaint for declaratory judgment against the United Steel, Paper and Forestry, Rubber, Manufacturing, Energy, Allied Industrial and Service Workers International Union ("USW"), the USW’s local and certain CAWV retirees, individually and as class representatives ("CAWV Retirees"), seeking a declaration of CAWV’s rights to modify/terminate retiree medical benefits.  Later in November 2009, the USW and representatives of a retiree class filed a separate suit against CAWV, Century Aluminum Company, Century Aluminum Master Welfare Benefit Plan, and various John Does with respect to the foregoing. On August 18, 2017, the District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia approved a settlement agreement in respect of these actions, pursuant to which, CAWV agreed to make payments into a trust for the benefit of the CAWV Retirees in the aggregate amount of $23.0 million over the course of ten years. Upon approval of the settlement, we paid $5.0 million to the aforementioned trust in September 2017 and agreed to pay the remaining amounts under the settlement agreement in annual increments of $2.0 million for nine years. At December 31, 2021, we had $2.0 million in other current liabilities and $6.2 million in other liabilities related to this agreement.

We are a defendant in several actions relating to various aspects of our business. While it is impossible to predict the ultimate disposition of any litigation, we do not believe that any of these lawsuits, either individually or in the aggregate, will have a material adverse effect on our financial condition, results of operations or liquidity. See Note 15. Commitments and Contingencies to the consolidated financial statements included herein for additional information.

Capital Resources

We intend to finance our future capital expenditures from available cash, cash flow from operations and if necessary, borrowings under our existing revolving credit facilities. For major investment projects, we would likely seek financing from various capital and loan markets and may potentially pursue the formation of strategic alliances. We may be unable, however, to issue additional debt or equity securities, or enter into other financing arrangements on attractive terms, or at all, due to a number of factors including a lack of demand, unfavorable pricing, poor economic conditions, unfavorable interest rates, or our financial condition or credit rating at the time. Future uncertainty in the U.S. and international markets and economies may adversely affect our liquidity, our ability to access the debt or capital markets and our financial condition.

Capital expenditures incurred for the year ended December 31, 2021 were $28.1 million, excluding expenditures of $61.9 million associated with the restart at Mt. Holly. We estimate our total capital spending in 2022, excluding the Mt. Holly restart project and Grundartangi casthouse project, will be approximately $30.0 million, related to our ongoing investment and sustainability projects at our plants.

Critical Accounting Estimates

Our significant accounting policies are described in Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements.  The preparation of the financial statements requires that management make judgments, assumptions and estimates in applying these accounting policies.  Those judgments are normally based on knowledge and experience about past and current events and on assumptions about future events.  Critical accounting estimates require management to make assumptions about matters that are highly uncertain at the time of the estimate and a change in these estimates may have a material impact on our financial position or results of operations.  Significant judgments and estimates made by our management include expenses and liabilities related to inventories, pensions and other postretirement benefits ("OPEB"), deferred tax assets and property, plant and equipment.  Our management has discussed the development and selection of these critical accounting estimates with the audit committee of our Board of Directors and the Audit Committee has reviewed our disclosure.

Inventories

Our inventories are stated at lower of cost or net realizable value ("NRV").

Our estimate of the market value of our inventories involves establishing a net realizable value for both finished goods and the components of inventory that will be converted to finished goods, raw materials and work in process. This requires management to use its judgment when making assumptions about future selling prices and the costs to complete our inventory during the period in which it will be sold.

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Our assumptions are subject to inherent uncertainties given the volatility surrounding the market price for primary aluminum sales and the market price for our major inputs, alumina and electrical power.

Although we believe that the assumptions used to estimate the market value of our inventory are reasonable, actual market conditions at the time our inventory is sold may be more or less favorable than management’s current estimates.

Pension and Other Postretirement Benefit Liabilities

We sponsor several pension and OPEB plans.  Our liabilities under these defined benefit plans are determined using methodologies that involve several actuarial assumptions, the most significant of which are the discount rate, health care cost inflation rate and the long-term rate of return on plan assets. We review our actuarial assumptions on an annual basis and make modifications to the assumptions when appropriate.

Discount Rate Selection

We select a discount rate for purposes of measuring obligations under defined benefit plans by matching cash flows separately for each plan to the yields on high-quality zero coupon bonds.  We use the Ryan Above Median Yield Curve (the "Ryan Curve"). We believe the projected cash flows used to determine the Ryan Curve rate provide a good approximation of the timing and amounts of our defined benefit payments under our plans and no adjustment to the Ryan Curve rate has been made.

A change of a half percentage point in the discount rate for our defined benefit plans would have the following effects on our obligations under these plans as of December 31, 2021:

Medical Trend Rate

Measurement of our postretirement benefit obligations requires the use of several assumptions about factors that will affect the amount and timing of future benefit payments. The assumed health care cost trend rates are the most critical estimates for measurement of the postretirement benefit obligation.  Changes in the health care cost trend rates have a significant effect on the amounts reported for the health care benefit obligation.

Medical cost inflation is initially estimated to be 6.4% and 7.1% for pre- and post-65 participants, respectively, declining to 4.5% over ten years and thereafter.  A one-percentage-point change in the assumed health care cost trend rate would have had the following effects in 2021:

Long-term Rate of Return on Plan Assets Assumption

Our expected long-term rate of return on plan assets is derived from our asset allocation strategies and anticipated future long-term performance of individual asset classes. Our analysis gives consideration to recent plan performance and historical

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returns; however, the assumptions are primarily based on long-term, prospective rates of return. The weighted average long-term rate of return on plan assets for our defined benefit pension plans is 7.25% for 2021.

Based on information provided by independent actuaries and other relevant sources, the Company believes that the assumptions used to estimate expenses, assets and liabilities of pensions and other postretirement benefits are reasonable; however, changes in these assumptions could impact the Company’s financial position, results of operations or cash flows.

Deferred Income Tax Assets

We regularly assess the likelihood that deferred tax assets will be recovered from future taxable income. To the extent we believe that it is more likely than not that a deferred tax asset will not be realized, a valuation allowance is established.  The amount of a valuation allowance is based upon our best estimate of our ability to realize the net deferred tax assets.  We have a valuation allowance of $485.8 million recorded for all of our U.S. deferred tax assets and a portion of our Icelandic deferred tax assets as of December 31, 2021.

Property, Plant and Equipment Impairment

We review our property, plant and equipment for impairment whenever events or circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of these assets (asset group) may not be recoverable.  The carrying amount of the assets (asset group) is not recoverable if it exceeds the sum of the undiscounted cash flows expected to result from the use and eventual disposition of the assets (asset group).  In that case, an impairment loss would be recognized for the amount by which the carrying amount exceeds the fair value of the assets (asset group), with the fair value determined using a discounted cash flow calculation.  These estimates of future cash flows include management’s assumptions about the expected use of the assets (asset group), the remaining useful life, expenditures to maintain the service potential, market and cost assumptions.

Determination as to whether and how much an asset is impaired involves significant management judgment involving highly uncertain matters, including estimating the future sales volumes, future selling prices and estimated raw material and conversion costs, alternative uses for the asset, and estimated proceeds from the disposal of the asset.

Recently Issued Accounting Standards Updates

Information regarding recently issued accounting pronouncements is included in Note 1. Summary of Significant Accounting Policies to the consolidated financial statements included herein.

Contractual Obligations

In the normal course of business, we have entered into various contractual obligations that will be settled in cash. These obligations consist primarily of long-term debt obligations and purchase obligations.  The expected future cash flows required to meet these obligations through the year 2030 are shown in the table below.  More information is available about these contractual obligations in the notes to the consolidated financial statements included herein.

(1)Long-term debt includes principal repayments on our 2028 Notes, Convertible Notes, the Casthouse Facility and the IRB.  Payments are based on the assumption that all outstanding debt instruments will remain outstanding until their respective due dates.  For our contingent obligation, based on the LME forward market prices for primary aluminum at December 31, 2021 and expected Hawesville operating levels, we believe that we will not have any payment obligations through the term of the agreement, which expires in 2028.

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(2)Estimated interest payments on our long-term debt assume that all outstanding debt instruments will remain outstanding until their respective due dates.  Our estimated future interest payments for any debt with a variable rate are based on the assumption that the December 31, 2021 rate for that debt continues until the respective due date.  We assume that no interest payments on the contingent obligation will be paid through the term of agreement, see above.

(3)Operating leases include long-term leases for land, office space, automobiles, and mobile equipment.

(4)Purchase obligations include long-term alumina and power contracts, excluding market-based power and raw material requirements contracts.  Purchase obligations not executed or legally binding as of December 31, 2021 have been excluded from this table.  For contracts with LME-based pricing provisions, including our long-term Icelandic power contracts, we assumed an LME price using the LME forward curve as of December 31, 2021.

(5)Other long-term liabilities include asset retirement obligations.  Asset retirement obligations are primarily estimated disposal costs for spent potliner used in the reduction cells of our domestic smelters.

Material Commitments

We also have outstanding commitments related to pension, supplemental executive retirement benefit ("SERB") plans, OPEB and workers' compensation obligations. As of December 31, 2021, estimated future payments related to these obligations through the year 2031 amount to approximately $198.9 million, $16.4 million, $60.5 million and $9.9 million, respectively.