AMERISAFE INC (AMSF)

Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

The financial and business analysis below provides information which the Company believes is relevant to an assessment and understanding of its consolidated financial position, results of operations and cash flows. The following discussion of our financial condition and results of operations should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and the notes thereto included in Item 8 of this report. This discussion includes forward-looking statements that are not guarantees of future performance and are not necessarily indicative of future operating results. See “Forward-Looking Statements” in Part I above for further discussion.

Overview

We are a holding company that markets and underwrites workers’ compensation insurance through its insurance subsidiaries. Workers’ compensation insurance covers statutorily prescribed benefits that employers are obligated to provide to their employees who are injured in the course and scope of their employment. Our business strategy is focused on providing this coverage to small to mid-sized employers engaged in hazardous industries, principally construction, trucking, logging and lumber, agriculture, manufacturing, maritime, and telecommunications. Employers engaged in hazardous industries pay substantially higher than average rates for workers’ compensation insurance compared to employers in other industries, as measured per payroll dollar. The higher premium rates are due to the nature of the work performed and the inherent workplace danger of our target employers. Hazardous industry employers also tend to have less frequent but more severe claims as compared to employers in other industries due to the nature of their businesses. We provide proactive safety reviews of most employers’ workplaces. These safety reviews are a vital component of our underwriting process and also promote safer workplaces. We utilize intensive claims management practices that we believe permit us to effectively manage the overall cost of our claims. In addition, our audit services ensure that our policyholders pay the appropriate premiums required under the terms of their policies and enable us to monitor payroll patterns that cause underwriting, safety or fraud concerns. We believe that the higher premiums typically paid by our policyholders, together with our disciplined underwriting and safety, claims and audit services, provide us with the opportunity to earn attractive returns for our shareholders.

We actively market our insurance in 27 states through independent agencies, as well as through our wholly-owned insurance agency subsidiary. We are also licensed in an additional 20 states, the District of Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Two of the key financial measures that we use to evaluate our performance are return on average equity and growth in book value per share adjusted for dividends paid to shareholders. We calculate return on average equity by dividing annual net income by the average of annual shareholders’ equity. Our return on average equity was 20.2% in 2024, 20.4% in 2023 and 15.5% in 2022. We calculate book value per share by dividing ending shareholders’ equity by the number of common shares outstanding. Our book value per share was $13.51 at December 31, 2024, $15.28 at December 31, 2023 and $16.57 at December 31, 2022. We paid cash dividends of $4.48 per share in 2024, $4.86 per share in 2023 and $5.24 per share in 2022.

Investment income is an important element of our net income. Because the period of time between our receipt of premiums and the ultimate settlement of claims is often several years or longer, we are able to invest cash from premiums for significant periods of time. As a result, we are able to generate more investment income from our premiums as compared to insurance companies that operate in other lines of business that pay claims more quickly. At December 31, 2024, our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, was $832.8 million and produced net investment income of $29.2 million in 2024, $31.3 million in 2023 and $27.2 million in 2022.

The use of reinsurance is an important component of our business strategy. We purchase reinsurance to reduce our net liability on individual risks and to protect against catastrophic losses. Our reinsurance program for 2025 includes 26 reinsurers that provide coverage to us in excess of a certain specified loss amount, or retention level. Our 2025 reinsurance program provides us with reinsurance coverage for each loss occurrence up to $100.0 million, subject to applicable limitations, deductibles, retentions and aggregate limits. However, for any loss occurrence involving only one claimant, our reinsurance coverage is limited to $20.0 million, subject to applicable deductibles, retentions and aggregate limits. Losses in the layer between $2.0 million and $10.0 million are ceded to a multi-year reinsurance treaty. As losses are incurred and recorded, we record amounts recoverable from reinsurers for the portion of the losses ceded to our reinsurers.

Our most significant balance sheet liability is our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses. We record reserves for estimated losses under insurance policies that we write and for loss adjustment expenses related to the investigation and settlement of claims. Reserves are based on estimates of the most likely ultimate cost of individual claims. Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses represent the estimated cost of all reported and unreported loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and unpaid at any given point in time based on known facts and circumstances. These estimates are inherently uncertain. In addition, there are no policy limits on the liability for workers’ compensation claims as there are for other forms of insurance. Therefore, estimating reserves for workers’ compensation claims may be more uncertain than estimating reserves for other types of insurance claims with shorter or

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more definite periods between occurrence of the claim and final determination of the loss and with policy limits on liability for claim amounts.

Our focus on providing workers’ compensation insurance to employers engaged in hazardous industries results in our receiving relatively fewer but more severe claims than many other workers’ compensation insurance companies. Severe claims, which we define as claims having an estimated ultimate cost of more than $1.0 million, usually have a material effect on each accident year’s loss reserves (and our reported results of operations) as a result of both the number of severe claims reported in any year and the timing of claims in the year. As a result of our focus on higher severity, lower frequency business, our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses may have greater volatility than other workers’ compensation insurance companies.

For example, for the five-year period ended December 31, 2024 we recorded 86 severe claims, representing an average of 17 severe claims per year for accident years 2020 through 2024. The number of severe claims in any one accident year in this five-year period ranged from a low of 14 in 2023 to a high of 20 in 2021. The average reported case severity for these claims ranged from $2.28 million for the 2023 accident year to $3.96 million for the 2021 accident year. For the five accident years, the case incurred for these severe claims accounted for an average of 18.2 percentage points of our overall loss and loss adjustment expense (LAE) ratio, measured at December 31, 2024.

Further, the ultimate cost of severe claims is more difficult to estimate, principally due to uncertainties as to medical treatment and outcome and the length and degree of disability. Because of these uncertainties, the estimate of the ultimate cost of severe claims can vary significantly as more information becomes available. As a result, at year end, the case reserve for a severe claim reported early in the year may be more accurate than the case reserve established for a severe claim reported late in the year.

A key assumption used by management in establishing loss reserves is that average per claim case incurred loss and loss adjustment expenses will increase year over year. We believe this increase primarily reflects medical and wage inflation and utilization. However, changes in average per claim case incurred loss and loss adjustment expenses can also be affected by the frequency of severe claims in the applicable accident years.

As more fully described in “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report, the estimate for loss and loss adjustment expenses is established based upon management’s analysis of historical data, and factors and trends derived from that data, including claims reported, average claim amount incurred, case development, duration, severity and payment patterns, as well as subjective assumptions. This analysis includes reviews of case reserves for individual open severe claims in the current and prior years. Management reviews the outcomes from actuarial analyses to confirm the reasonableness of its reserve estimate.

Substantial judgment is required to determine the relevance of our historical experience and industry information under current facts and circumstances. The interpretation of this historical and industry data can be impacted by external forces, principally frequency and severity of unreported claims, length of time to achieve ultimate settlement of claims, utilization, inflation in medical costs and wages, insurance policy coverage interpretations, jury determinations and legislative changes. Accordingly, our reserves may prove to be inadequate to cover our actual losses. If we change our estimates, these changes would be reflected in our results of operations during the period in which the changes occurred, with increases in our reserves resulting in decreases in our earnings. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Our gross reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses at December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022 were $651.3 million, $674.0 million and $696.0 million, respectively. As a percentage of gross reserves at year end, IBNR represented 16.5% in 2024, 17.8% in 2023 and 17.1% in 2022.

In 2024, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $34.9 million. In 2023, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $41.4 million. In 2022, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $40.6 million.

The workers’ compensation insurance industry is cyclical in nature and influenced by many factors, including price competition, medical cost increases, natural and man-made disasters, changes in interest rates, changes in state laws and regulations, and general economic conditions. A hard market in our industry is characterized by decreased competition that results in higher premium rates, more restrictive policy coverage terms, and lower commissions paid to agencies. In contrast, a soft market is characterized by increased competition that results in lower premium rates, expanded policy coverage terms, and higher commissions paid to agencies. Our strategy is to focus on maintaining underwriting profitability throughout the cycle.

For additional information regarding our loss reserves and the analyses and methodologies used by management to establish these reserves, see the information under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

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Principal Revenue and Expense Items

Our revenues consist primarily of the following:

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned is the earned portion of our net premiums written. Net premiums written is equal to gross premiums written less premiums ceded to reinsurers. Gross premiums written includes the estimated annual premiums from each insurance policy we write in our voluntary business and assumed premiums from mandatory pooling arrangements during a reporting period based on the policy effective date or the date the policy is bound, whichever is later.

Premiums are earned on a daily pro rata basis over the term of the policy. At the end of each reporting period, premiums written that are not earned are classified as unearned premiums and are earned in subsequent periods over the remaining term of the policy. Our insurance policies typically have a term of one year. Thus, for a one-year policy written on July 1, 2024 for an employer with constant payroll during the term of the policy, we would earn half of the premiums in 2024 and the other half in 2025. On a monthly basis, we also recognize net premiums earned from mandatory pooling arrangements.

We estimate the annual premiums to be paid by our policyholders when we issue the policies and record those amounts on our balance sheet as premiums receivable. We conduct premium audits on all of our voluntary business policyholders annually, upon the expiration of each policy, including when the policy is renewed. The purpose of these audits is to verify that policyholders have accurately reported their payroll expenses and employee job classifications, and therefore have paid us the premium required under the terms of the policies. The difference between the estimated premium and the ultimate premium is referred to as “earned but unbilled” premium, or EBUB premium. EBUB premium is subject to significant variability and can either increase or decrease earned premium based upon several factors, including changes in premium growth, industry mix and economic conditions. Due to the timing of audits and other adjustments, the ultimate premium earned is generally not determined for several months after the expiration of the policy.

We review the estimate of EBUB premiums on a quarterly basis using historical data and applying various assumptions based on the current market and economic conditions, and we record an adjustment to premiums, related losses, and expenses as warranted.

Net Investment Income and Net Realized Gains and Losses on Investments. We invest our statutory surplus funds and the funds supporting our insurance liabilities in fixed maturity securities, equity securities and alternative investments. In addition, a portion of these funds are held in cash and cash equivalents to pay current claims. Our net investment income includes interest and dividends earned on our invested assets and amortization of premiums and discounts on our fixed maturity securities. We assess the performance of our investment portfolio using a standard tax equivalent yield metric. Investment income that is tax-exempt is increased by our marginal federal tax rate to express yield on tax-exempt securities on the same basis as taxable securities. Net realized gains and losses on our investments are reported separately from our net investment income. Net realized gains occur when our investment securities are sold for more than their cost or amortized cost, as applicable. Net realized losses occur when our investment securities are sold for less than their cost or amortized cost, as applicable. We classify the majority of our fixed maturity securities as held-to-maturity. The remainder of our fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale. Net unrealized gains or losses on our securities classified as available-for-sale are reported separately within accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) on our balance sheet. Changes in net unrealized gains or losses on our equity securities are recognized in net income.

Fee and Other Income. We recognize commission income earned on policies issued by other carriers that are sold by our wholly-owned insurance agency subsidiary as the related services are performed. We also recognize a small portion of interest income from mandatory pooling arrangements in which we participate.

Our expenses consist primarily of the following:

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred represents our largest expense item and, for any given reporting period, includes estimates of future claim payments, changes in those estimates from prior reporting periods and costs associated with investigating, defending, and administering claims. These expenses fluctuate based on the amount and types of risks we insure. We record loss and loss adjustment expenses related to estimates of future claim payments based on case-by-case valuations and statistical analyses. We seek to establish all reserves at the most likely ultimate exposure based on our historical claims experience. It is typical for our more serious claims to take several years to settle and we revise our estimates as we receive additional information about the condition of the injured employees. Our ability to estimate loss and loss adjustment expenses accurately at the time of pricing our insurance policies is a critical factor in our profitability. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

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Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs. Underwriting and certain other operating costs are those expenses that we incur to underwrite and maintain the insurance policies we issue. These expenses include state and local premium taxes and fees and other operating costs, offset by commissions we receive from reinsurers under our reinsurance treaty programs. We pay state and local taxes, licenses and fees, assessments, and contributions to state workers’ compensation security funds based on premiums. In addition, other operating costs include general and administrative expenses, excluding commissions and salaries and benefits, incurred at both the insurance company and corporate level.

Commissions. We pay commissions to our subsidiary insurance agency and to the independent agencies that sell our insurance based on premiums collected from policyholders.

Salaries and Benefits. We pay salaries and provide benefits to our employees.

Policyholder Dividends. In limited circumstances, we pay dividends to policyholders in particular states as an underwriting incentive.

Income Tax Expense. We incur federal, state, and local income tax expense.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Understanding our accounting policies is key to understanding our financial statements. Management considers some of these policies to be very important to the presentation of our financial results because they require us to make significant estimates and assumptions. These estimates and assumptions affect the reported amounts of our assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses and related disclosures. Some of the estimates result from judgments that can be subjective and complex and, consequently, actual results in future periods might differ from these estimates.

Management believes that the most critical accounting policies relate to the reporting of reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses, including losses that have occurred but have not been reported prior to the reporting date, amounts recoverable from reinsurers, premiums receivable, assessments, deferred policy acquisition costs, deferred income taxes, credit losses on investment securities and share-based compensation.

The following is a description of our critical accounting policies.

Reserves for Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses. We record reserves for estimated losses under insurance policies that we write and for loss adjustment expenses, which include defense and cost containment (DCC) and adjusting and other (AO) expenses, related to the investigation and settlement of policy claims. Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses represent the estimated cost of all reported and unreported loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and unpaid at any given point in time based on known facts and circumstances.

Our reserves for loss and DCC expenses are estimated using case-by-case valuations based on our estimate of the most likely outcome of the claim at that time. In addition to these case reserves, we establish reserves on an aggregate basis that have been incurred but not reported (IBNR). Our IBNR reserves are also intended to provide for aggregate changes in case incurred amounts as well as for recently reported claims which an initial case reserve has not been established. The third component of our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses is our AO reserve. Our AO reserve is established for those future claims administration costs that cannot be allocated directly to individual claims. The final component of our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses is the reserve for mandatory pooling arrangements.

In establishing our reserves, we review the results of analyses using actuarial methods that utilize historical loss data from our more than 39 years of underwriting workers’ compensation insurance. The actuarial analysis of our historical data provides the factors we use in estimating our loss reserves. These factors are primarily measures over time of the number of claims paid and reported, average paid and incurred claim amounts, claim closure rates and claim payment patterns. In evaluating the results of our analyses, management also uses substantial judgment in considering other factors that are not considered in these actuarial analyses, including changes in business mix, claims management, regulatory issues, medical trends, employment and wage patterns, insurance policy coverage interpretations, judicial determinations and other subjective factors. Due to the inherent uncertainty associated with these estimates, and the cost of incurred but unreported claims, our actual liabilities may vary significantly from our original estimates.

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On a quarterly basis, we review our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses to determine whether adjustments are required. Any resulting adjustments are included in the results for the current period. In establishing our reserves, we do not use loss discounting, which would involve recognizing the time value of money and offsetting estimates of future payments by future expected investment income. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Amounts Recoverable from Reinsurers. Amounts recoverable from reinsurers represent the portion of our paid and unpaid loss and loss adjustment expenses that are assumed by reinsurers and related commissions due from reinsurers. These amounts are separately reported on our balance sheet as assets net of an allowance for credit losses and do not reduce our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses because reinsurance does not relieve us of liability to our policyholders. We are required to pay claims even if a reinsurer fails to pay us under the terms of a reinsurance contract. We calculate amounts recoverable from reinsurers based on our estimates of the underlying loss and loss adjustment expenses, as well as the terms and conditions of our reinsurance contracts, which could be subject to interpretation. In addition, we bear credit risk with respect to our reinsurers, which can be significant because some of the unpaid loss and loss adjustment expenses for which we have reinsurance coverage remain outstanding for extended periods of time.

Premiums Receivable. Premiums receivable represents premium-related balances due from our policyholders based on annual premiums for policies written, including surcharges and deposits and adjustments for premium audits, endorsements, cancellations, cash transactions and charge offs. The balance is shown net of an allowance for credit losses and includes an estimate for EBUB. The EBUB estimate is subject to significant variability and can either increase or decrease premiums receivable and earned premiums based upon several factors, including changes in premium growth, industry mix and economic conditions. EBUB assumptions include historical development factors, current economic outlook and current trends in particular sectors of our business.

Assessments. We are subject to various assessments and premium surcharges related to our insurance activities, including assessments and premium surcharges for state guaranty funds and second injury funds. Our accrual is based on historical assessments as well as updated assessment rates. Assessments based on premiums are recorded as an expense as premiums are earned and generally paid one year after the calendar year in which the policies are written. Assessments based on losses are recorded as an expense as losses are incurred and are generally paid within one year of the calendar year in which the claims are paid by us. State guaranty fund assessments are used by state insurance oversight agencies to pay claims of policyholders of impaired, insolvent or failed insurance companies and the operating expenses of those agencies. Second injury funds are used by states to reimburse insurers and employers for claims paid to injured employees for aggravation of prior conditions or injuries. In some states, these assessments and premium surcharges may be partially recovered through a reduction in future premium taxes.

Deferred Policy Acquisition Costs. We defer commission expenses, premium taxes and certain marketing, sales, underwriting and safety costs that vary with and primarily relate to the successful acquisition of insurance policies. These acquisition costs are capitalized and charged to expense ratably as premiums are earned. In calculating deferred policy acquisition costs, these costs are limited to their estimated realizable value, which gives effect to the premiums to be earned, anticipated losses and settlement expenses and certain other costs we expect to incur as the premiums are earned, less related net investment income. Judgments as to the ultimate recoverability of these deferred policy acquisition costs are highly dependent upon estimated future profitability of unearned premiums. If the unearned premiums were less than our expected claims and expenses after considering investment income, we would reduce the deferred costs.

Deferred Income Taxes. We use the liability method of accounting for income taxes. Under this method, deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributed to differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities resulting from a tax rate change impacts our net income or loss in the reporting period that includes the enactment date of the tax rate change.

In assessing whether our deferred tax assets will be realized, management considers whether it is more likely than not that we will generate future taxable income during the periods in which those temporary differences become deductible. Management considers the scheduled reversal of deferred tax liabilities, tax planning strategies and projected future taxable income in making this assessment. If necessary, we establish a valuation allowance to reduce the deferred tax assets to the amounts that are more likely than not to be realized.

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Credit Losses on Investment Securities. Investment securities are recorded on the balance sheet as assets net of an allowance for credit losses. For held-to-maturity fixed income securities, the allowance is based on historical default and recovery rates as published by Moody’s analytics for corporate bonds, municipal bonds, and other types of fixed income securities. For available-for-sale fixed income securities, a credit allowance is established if the expected discounted future cash flows no longer exceed the book value of the security. In determining the amount of the credit loss to establish, the Company considers the following factors:

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The extent to which the fair value is less than the amortized cost basis;

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Adverse conditions in the security, industry, or geography, including:

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Changes in technology

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Discontinuation of a segment of business that may affect future earnings

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Changes in the quality of the credit enhancement, if any

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Changes in the payment structure of debt security;

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Failure of the issuer to make scheduled interest or principal payments; and

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Any changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency.

Share-Based Compensation. In accordance with Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) Topic 718, Compensation-Stock Compensation, we recognize compensation costs for restricted stock, restricted stock units, performance-based stock and stock option awards over the applicable vesting periods.

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Results of Operations

The table below summarizes certain operating results and key measures we use in monitoring and evaluating our operations.

(1)
Includes policy acquisition expenses, and other general and administrative expenses, excluding commissions and salaries and benefits, related to insurance operations and corporate operating expenses.

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(2)
The current accident year loss ratio is calculated by dividing loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred for the current accident year by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(3)
The prior accident year loss ratio is calculated by dividing the change in loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred for prior accident years by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(4)
The net underwriting expense ratio is calculated by dividing underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries, and benefits by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(5)
The net dividend ratio is calculated by dividing policyholder dividends by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(6)
The net combined ratio is the sum of the net loss ratio, the net underwriting expense ratio and the net dividend ratio.

Overview of Operating Results

Year Ended December 31, 2024 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2023

Gross Premiums Written. Gross premiums written for 2024 were $294.1 million, compared to $285.4 million for 2023, an increase of 3.1%. The increase was attributable to an $11.7 million increase in annual premiums on voluntary policies written during the period and a $1.0 million increase in residual market premiums. These increases were partially offset by a $3.9 million decrease in premiums resulting from payroll audits and related premium adjustments for policies written in previous periods.

Net Premiums Written. Net premiums written for 2024 were $276.0 million, compared to $268.7 million for 2023, an increase of 2.7%. The increase was primarily attributable to the increase in gross premiums written. As a percentage of gross premiums earned, ceded premiums were 6.3% for 2024 compared to 5.9% for 2023. Ceded premiums increased as we purchased higher levels of reinsurance coverage at generally higher prices in 2024. For additional information, see Item 1, “Business—Reinsurance.”

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned for 2024 were $270.6 million, compared to $267.1 million for 2023, an increase of 1.3%. The increase was primarily attributable to the increase in net premiums written.

Net Investment Income. Net investment income in 2024 was $29.2 million, a decrease of 6.8% from the $31.3 million reported in 2023. The decrease was due to lower average invested asset balances in the period compared to prior year as well as lower investment yields on fixed income securities and cash compared to prior year. The average pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 3.4% per annum for 2024 and 2023. The year-end tax-equivalent yield on our investment portfolio was 3.8% per annum for 2024, compared to 3.7% per annum for 2023. The tax-equivalent yield is calculated using the effective interest rate and the appropriate marginal tax rate. Average invested assets, including cash and cash equivalents, decreased 6.9%, from an average of $955.8 million for 2023 to an average of $890.4 million for 2024.

Net Realized Gains (Losses) on Investments. Net realized losses on investments in 2024 totaled $0.6 million compared to gains of $6.6 million in 2023. In 2024, net realized losses resulted primarily from the sale of equity and fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale as well as the redemption of fixed maturity securities. In 2023, net realized gains resulted primarily from the sale of equity securities.

Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities. Net unrealized gains on equity securities in 2024 were $9.5 million compared to net unrealized gains of $1.2 million in 2023.

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and LAE incurred totaled $157.3 million for 2024, compared to $148.3 million for 2023, an increase of $9.0 million, or 6.1%. The current accident year losses and LAE incurred were $192.2 million, or 71.0% of net premiums earned, compared to $189.7 million, or 71.0% of net premiums earned for 2023. We recorded favorable prior accident year development of $34.9 million in 2024, compared to $41.4 million in 2023. This is discussed in more detail below in “Prior Year Development.” Our net loss ratio was 58.1% for 2024 and 55.5% for 2023.

Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs, Commissions and Salaries and Benefits. Underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries and benefits for 2024 were $80.1 million, compared to $78.3 million for 2023. The Company experienced a $3.3 million increase in compensation expense, a $0.7 million decrease in profit sharing reinsurance commission, a $0.7 million increase in accounts receivable write-offs, a $0.4 million increase in travel and travel related items, and a $0.3 million increase in commission expense. Offsetting these amounts were a $2.2 million decrease in insurance related assessments, a $0.4 million increase in ceding commission related to our current year reinsurance agreement, a $0.4 million increase in deferred policy acquisition costs, and a $0.3 million decrease in systems costs. Our underwriting expense ratio increased to 29.6% in 2024 from 29.3% in 2023.

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Income tax expense. Income tax expense for 2024 was $13.6 million, compared to $15.3 million for 2023. The effective tax rate was 19.7% for both 2024 and 2023.

Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2022

Gross Premiums Written. Gross premiums written for 2023 were $285.4 million, compared to $276.1 million for 2022, an increase of 3.3%. The increase was attributable to a $10.1 million increase in premiums resulting from payroll audits and related premium adjustments for policies written in previous periods, and a $0.8 million increase in annual premiums on voluntary policies written during the period. The increases were partially offset by a $1.6 million decrease in residual market premium.

Net Premiums Written. Net premiums written for 2023 were $268.7 million, compared to $265.6 million for 2022, an increase of 1.2%. The increase was primarily attributable to the increase in gross premiums written. As a percentage of gross premiums earned, ceded premiums were 5.9% for 2023 compared to 3.7% for 2022. Ceded premiums increased as we purchased higher levels of reinsurance coverage at generally higher prices in 2023. For additional information, see Item 1, “Business—Reinsurance.”

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned for 2023 were $267.1 million, compared to $271.7 million for 2022, a decrease of 1.7%. The decrease was primarily attributable to the increase in the cost of reinsurance.

Net Investment Income.Net investment income in 2023 was $31.3 million, an increase of 15.1% from the $27.2 million reported in 2022. The increase was due to higher fixed income reinvestment rates in relation to portfolio rolloff. The average pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 3.4% per annum for 2023 versus 2.7% per annum for 2022. The year-end tax-equivalent yield on our investment portfolio was 3.7% per annum for 2023, compared to 3.4% per annum for 2022. The tax-equivalent yield is calculated using the effective interest rate and the appropriate marginal tax rate. Average invested assets, including cash and cash equivalents, decreased 9.1%, from an average of $1,051.2 million for 2022 to an average of $955.8 million for 2023.

Net Realized Gains (Losses) on Investments. Net realized gains on investments in 2023 totaled $6.6 million, compared to gains of $3.4 million in 2022. In 2023 and 2022, net realized gains resulted primarily from the sale of equity securities.

Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities. Net unrealized gains on equity securities in 2023 were $1.2 million compared to net unrealized losses of $8.1 million in 2022.

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and LAE incurred totaled $148.3 million for 2023, compared to $152.3 million for 2022, a decrease of $4.1 million, or 2.7%. The current accident year losses and LAE incurred were $189.7 million, or 71.0% of net premiums earned, compared to $192.9 million, or 71.0% of net premiums earned for 2022. We recorded favorable prior accident year development of $41.4 million in 2023, compared to $40.6 million in 2022. This is discussed in more detail below in “Prior Year Development.” Our net loss ratio was 55.5% for 2023 and 56.1% for 2022.

Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs, Commissions and Salaries and Benefits. Underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries and benefits for 2023 were $78.3 million, compared to $72.0 million for 2022. The Company experienced a $4.1 million increase in insurance related assessments, a $2.0 million increase in commission expense, a $1.5 million increase in professional fees, and a $0.8 million increase in compensation expense. The increase in insurance related assessments included a benefit of $3.8 million in 2022 due to the return of assessments from the Minnesota Workers' Compensation Reinsurance Association. Offsetting these amounts were a $1.6 million increase in profit sharing reinsurance commission, a decrease of $0.8 million in accounts receivable write-offs, a $0.6 million decrease in taxes, licenses and fees, and an increase of $0.5 million in ceding commission related to our current year reinsurance agreement. Our underwriting expense ratio increased to 29.3% in 2023 from 26.5% in 2022.

Income tax expense. Income tax expense for 2023 was $15.3 million, compared to $12.0 million for 2022. The effective tax rate increased to 19.7% for 2023, compared to 17.8% for 2022. The increase in the effective tax rate is due to a lower proportion of tax-exempt income to underwriting income in 2023 relative to 2022.

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Prior Year Development

The Company recorded favorable prior accident year loss and loss adjustment expense development of $34.9 million in calendar year 2024, $41.4 million in calendar year 2023 and $40.6 million in calendar year 2022. The table below sets forth the favorable development for accident years 2019 through 2023 and, collectively, all accident years prior to 2019.

The table below sets forth the number of open claims as of December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022, and the number of claims reported and closed during the years then ended.

At December 31, 2024, our incurred amounts for certain accident years developed more favorably than management previously expected. Multiple factors can cause loss development both unfavorable and favorable. The favorable loss development we experienced across accident years was largely due to two factors: (1) lower than expected severity of injuries in these accident years compared to our original and revised estimates; and (2) favorable case reserve development from closed claims and claims where the worker had reached maximum medical improvement. We believe the favorable case reserve development resulted primarily from an intensive claims management focus with the Company actively seeking to settle claims, leading to favorable development.

The assumptions we used in establishing our reserves for these accident years were based on our historical claims data. However, as of December 31, 2024, actual results for these accident years have been better than our assumptions would have predicted. We do not presently intend to modify our assumptions for establishing reserves in light of recent results. However, if actual results for current and future accident years are consistent with, or different than, our results in these recent accident years, our historical claims data will reflect this change and, over time, will impact the reserves we establish for future claims.

Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses are inherently uncertain and our focus on providing workers’ compensation insurance to employers engaged in hazardous industries results in our receiving relatively fewer but more severe claims than many other workers’ compensation insurance companies. As a result of this focus on higher severity, lower frequency business, our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses may have greater volatility than other workers’ compensation insurance companies. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Our principal sources of operating funds are premiums, investment income, and proceeds from maturities of investments. Our primary uses of operating funds include payments for claims and operating expenses. We pay claims, operating expenses, shareholder dividends and repurchases using cash flow from operations and invest our excess cash in fixed maturity and equity securities. We expect that our projected cash flow from operations will provide us sufficient liquidity to fund future operations, including payment of claims and operating expenses and other holding company expenses, for at least the next 12 months.

We forecast claim payments based on our historical trends. We seek to manage the funding of claim payments by actively managing available cash and forecasting cash flows on a short- and long-term basis. Cash payments, net of reinsurance, for claims were $172.9 million in 2024, $177.5 million in 2023 and $194.8 million in 2022. We fund claim payments out of cash flow from

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operations, principally premiums, net of amounts ceded to our reinsurers, and net investment income. Our investment portfolio at December 31, 2024 was $832.8 million.

As discussed above under “Overview,” we purchase reinsurance to reduce our net liability on individual risks and to protect against catastrophic losses. Based on our estimates of future claims, we believe we are sufficiently capitalized to satisfy the deductibles and retentions in our 2025 reinsurance program. We reevaluate our reinsurance program at least annually, taking into consideration a number of factors, including cost of reinsurance, our liquidity requirements, operating leverage and coverage terms.

Even if we maintain our existing retention levels, if the cost of reinsurance increases, our cash flow from operations would decrease as we would cede a greater portion of our written premiums to our reinsurers. Conversely, our cash flow from operations would increase if the cost of reinsurance declined relative to our retention.

In December 2024, the Company commuted reinsurance agreements with Hannover Re and Tokio Millenium Re covering portions of accident years 2012-2014. The Company received a $6.3 million payment effectuated solely through offset against the balance of the funds withheld and recoverable from reinsurers' accounts under the reinsurance agreements in exchange for releasing Hannover Re and Tokio Millenium Re from their reinsurance obligations under the commuted agreements. Hannover Re and Tokio Millenium Re remain obligated to the subsidiaries of the Company under other reinsurance agreements. As a result of the commutation, we recorded a pre-tax loss of approximately $1.5 million.

In December 2024, the Company commuted reinsurance agreements with Hannover Re and Allianz Risk Transfer covering portions of accident years 2014-2016. The Company received a $9.8 million payment effectuated solely through offset against the balance of the funds withheld and recoverable from reinsurers' accounts under the reinsurance agreements in exchange for releasing Hannover Re and Allianz Risk Transfer from their reinsurance obligations under the commuted agreements. Hannover Re and Allianz Risk Transfer remain obligated to the subsidiaries of the Company under other reinsurance agreements. The effect on the Company's net income as a result of the commutation was immaterial.

We manage risk on certain long-duration claims by settling these claims through the purchase of annuities from unaffiliated life insurance companies. In the event these companies are unable to meet their obligations under these annuity contracts, we could be liable to the claimants, but our reinsurers remain obligated to indemnify us for all or part of these obligations in accordance with the terms of our reinsurance contracts. As of December 31, 2024, the present value of these annuities was $109.7 million, as estimated by our annuity providers. Substantially all of the annuities are issued or guaranteed by life insurance companies that have an A.M. Best rating of “A” (Excellent) or better. For additional information, see Note 16 to our consolidated financial statements in Item 8 of this report.

The Company has operating and finance leases for office space and equipment. Our leases have remaining lease terms of one month to 49 months, some of which include options to extend the leases for up to five years. The Company, in determining the present value of lease payments, utilizes either the rate implicit in the lease if that rate is readily determinable or the Company’s incremental secured borrowing rate commensurate with the term of the underlying lease.

Net cash provided by operating activities was $24.2 million in 2024, as compared to $29.8 million in 2023, and $28.2 million in 2022. Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2024 were net premiums collected of $263.2 million, investment income collected of $31.6 million, and reinsurance recoveries collected of $0.3 million. These amounts were offset in part by claim payments of $182.4 million, $71.5 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $11.8 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $4.2 million.

Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2023 were net premiums collected of $261.0 million, investment income collected of $34.5 million, and reinsurance recoveries collected of $16.0 million. These amounts were offset in part by claim payments of $172.9 million, $73.9 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $14.0 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $3.5 million.

Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2022 were net premiums collected of $278.9 million and investment income collected of $33.6 million. These amounts were offset in part by claim payments of $206.3 million, $64.6 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $7.8 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $3.4 million.

Net cash provided by investing activities was $72.4 million in 2024, as compared to net cash provided by investing activities of $43.9 million in 2023 and net cash provided by investing activities of $75.4 million in 2022. In 2024, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $183.9 million, offset by investment purchases of $110.7 million.

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In 2023, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $178.1 million, offset by investment purchases of $133.7 million.

In 2022, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $293.0 million, offset by investment purchases of $215.5 million.

Net cash used in financing activities was $91.2 million in 2024, as compared to $96.5 million in 2023 and $112.9 million in 2022. Major components of cash used in financing activities in 2024 included cash used for dividends paid to shareholders of $85.4 million, purchases of treasury stock of $5.1 million, and share-based compensation related tax withholding of $0.6 million.

Major components of cash used in financing activities in 2023 included cash used for dividends paid to shareholders of $93.3 million, purchases of treasury stock of $2.2 million, and share-based compensation related tax withholding of $0.9 million.

Major components of cash used in financing activities in 2022 included cash used for dividends paid to shareholders of $100.4 million and purchases of treasury stock of $12.4 million.

In 2024, the Company renewed a line of credit agreement with Frost Bank for borrowings up to a maximum of $20.0 million. Under the agreement, advances may be made either in the form of loans or letters of credit. Borrowings under the agreement accrue at interest rates based upon prime rate or one-month term SOFR rate and are unsecured. At December 31, 2024, there were no outstanding borrowings. Unless renewed, the agreement will expire in May 2025.

Our board of directors initially authorized the Company’s share repurchase program in February 2010. In October 2016, the Board reauthorized this program with a limit of $25.0 million with no expiration date. As of December 31, 2024, we had repurchased a total of 1,682,851 shares of our outstanding common stock for $42.1 million. The Company had $5.3 million available for future repurchases at December 31, 2024 under this program. There were 113,411 and 46,741 shares repurchased in 2024 and 2023, respectively. The repurchases may be effected from time to time depending upon market conditions and subject to applicable regulatory considerations. It is anticipated that future repurchases will be funded from available capital.

We are a holding company that transacts business through its operating subsidiaries, including AIIC, SOCI and AIICTX. Our primary assets are the capital stock of these insurance subsidiaries. Our ability to fund our operations depends upon the surplus and earnings of our subsidiaries and their ability to pay dividends to us. Payment of dividends by our insurance subsidiaries is restricted by state insurance laws, including laws establishing minimum solvency and liquidity thresholds. Based upon the prescribed calculation, the insurance subsidiaries could pay us dividends of up to $50.8 million in 2025 without seeking regulatory approval. See “Business—Regulation—Dividend Limitations” in Item 1 of this report.

We paid regular quarterly cash dividends of $0.37, $0.34, and $0.31 per share in 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively. In addition, the Company paid extraordinary cash dividends of $3.00 in 2024, $3.50 per share in 2023, and $4.00 in 2022.

On February 25, 2025, we declared a regular quarterly cash dividend of $0.39 per share payable on March 21, 2025 to shareholders of record as of March 7, 2025. Our board of directors intends to continue to consider the payment of a regular cash dividend each calendar quarter. On an annualized basis, the cash dividend is expected to be $1.56 per share in 2025.

Investment Portfolio

The principal objectives of our investment portfolio are to preserve capital and surplus and to maintain appropriate liquidity for corporate requirements. Additional objectives are to support our A.M. Best rating of “A” (Excellent) and to maximize after-tax income and risk-adjusted total return. We presently expect to maintain sufficient liquidity from funds generated by operations to meet our anticipated insurance obligations and operating and capital expenditure needs. Excess funds from operations will be invested in accordance with our investment policy and statutory requirements.

We allocate our investment portfolio into four categories: cash and cash equivalents, short-term investments, fixed maturity securities and equity securities. Cash and cash equivalents include cash on deposit, money market funds and municipal securities, corporate securities and certificates of deposit with a maturity date, at the time of purchase, of 90 days or less. Short-term investments include municipal securities, corporate securities and certificates of deposit with an original maturity greater than 90 days but less than one year. Our fixed maturity securities include obligations of the U.S. Treasury or U.S. agencies, obligations of states and their subdivisions, U.S. Dollar-denominated obligations of the U.S. or Canadian corporations, U.S. agency mortgage-backed securities, commercial mortgage-backed securities and asset-backed securities.

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Under Nebraska and Texas law, as applicable, each of AIIC, SOCI and AIICTX is required to invest only in securities that are either interest-bearing, interest-accruing or eligible for dividends, and must limit its investment in the securities of any single issuer, other than direct obligations of the U.S., to five percent of the insurance company’s assets. As of December 31, 2024, we were in compliance with these requirements.

We employ diversification policies and balance investment credit risk and related underwriting risks to minimize our total potential exposure to any one business sector or security.

As of December 31, 2024, our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, totaled $832.8 million, a decrease of 7.1% from December 31, 2023. The majority of our fixed maturity securities are classified as held-to-maturity, as defined by FASB ASC Topic 320, Investments-Debt and Equity Securities. As such, the reported book value of those securities is equal to their amortized cost net of allowance for credit losses and does not fluctuate based on changing interest rates. The remainder of our fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale and reported at fair market value, less an allowance for credit losses, if any. Investments in equity securities are reported at fair market value.

We follow FASB ASC Topic 820, Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures, which defines fair value, establishes a fair value hierarchy and requires an entity to maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs when measuring fair value. As disclosed in Note 18 to our financial statements, our securities available-for-sale are classified using Level 1, 2 and 3 inputs. We did not elect the fair value option prescribed under FASB ASC Topic 825, Financial Instruments, for any financial assets in 2023 or 2024.

The composition of our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, as of December 31, 2024 is shown in the following table.

The following table summarizes the gross unrealized losses and fair value of fixed income securities by the length of time that individual securities have been in a continuous unrealized loss position.

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The pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 3.4% per annum during the twelve months ended December 31, 2024 and 2023.

Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

The financial and business analysis below provides information which the Company believes is relevant to an assessment and understanding of its consolidated financial position, results of operations and cash flows. The following discussion of our financial condition and results of operations should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and the notes thereto included in Item 8 of this report. This discussion includes forward-looking statements that are subject to risks, uncertainties and other factors described in Item 1A of this report. These factors could cause our actual results in 2024 and beyond to differ materially from those expressed in, or implied by, those forward-looking statements.

Overview

AMERISAFE is a holding company that markets and underwrites workers’ compensation insurance through its insurance subsidiaries. Workers’ compensation insurance covers statutorily prescribed benefits that employers are obligated to provide to their employees who are injured in the course and scope of their employment. Our business strategy is focused on providing this coverage to small to mid-sized employers engaged in hazardous industries, principally construction, trucking, logging and lumber, agriculture, manufacturing, telecommunications, and maritime. Employers engaged in hazardous industries pay substantially higher than average rates for workers’ compensation insurance compared to employers in other industries, as measured per payroll dollar. The higher premium rates are due to the nature of the work performed and the inherent workplace danger of our target employers. Hazardous industry employers also tend to have less frequent but more severe claims as compared to employers in other industries due to the nature of their businesses. We provide proactive safety reviews of employers’ workplaces. These safety reviews are a vital component of our underwriting process and also promote safer workplaces. We utilize intensive claims management practices that we believe permit us to reduce the overall cost of our claims. In addition, our audit services ensure that our policyholders pay the appropriate premiums required under the terms of their policies and enable us to monitor payroll patterns that cause underwriting, safety or fraud concerns. We believe that the higher premiums typically paid by our policyholders, together with our disciplined underwriting and safety, claims and audit services, provide us with the opportunity to earn attractive returns for our shareholders.

We actively market our insurance in 27 states through independent agencies, as well as through our wholly owned insurance agency subsidiary. We are also licensed in an additional 20 states, the District of Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Two of the key financial measures that we use to evaluate our performance are return on average equity and growth in book value per share adjusted for dividends paid to shareholders. We calculate return on average equity by dividing annual net income by the average of annual shareholders’ equity. Our return on average equity was 20.4% in 2023, 15.5% in 2022 and 15.7% in 2021 . We calculate book value per share by dividing ending shareholders’ equity by the number of common shares outstanding. Our book value per share was $15.28 at December 31, 2023, $16.57 at December 31, 2022 and $20.62 at December 31, 2021. We paid cash dividends of $4.86 per share in 2023, $5.24 per share in 2022 and $5.16 per share in 2021.

Investment income is an important element of our net income. Because the period of time between our receipt of premiums and the ultimate settlement of claims is often several years or longer, we are able to invest cash from premiums for significant periods of time. As a result, we are able to generate more investment income from our premiums as compared to insurance companies that operate in other lines of business that pay claims more quickly. At December 31, 2023, our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, was $896.5 million and produced net investment income of $31.3 million in 2023, $27.2 million in 2022 and $25.4 million in 2021.

The use of reinsurance is an important component of our business strategy. We purchase reinsurance to reduce our net liability on individual risks and to protect against catastrophic losses. Our reinsurance program for 2024 includes 26 reinsurers that provide coverage to us in excess of a certain specified loss amount, or retention level. Our 2024 reinsurance program provides us with reinsurance coverage for each loss occurrence up to $100.0 million, subject to applicable limitations, deductibles, retentions and aggregate limits. However, for any loss occurrence involving only one claimant, our reinsurance coverage is limited to $20.0 million, subject to applicable deductibles, retentions and aggregate limits. Losses in the layer between $2.0 million and $10.0 million are ceded to a multi-year reinsurance treaty. As losses are incurred and recorded, we record amounts recoverable from reinsurers for the portion of the losses ceded to our reinsurers.

Our most significant balance sheet liability is our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses. We record reserves for estimated losses under insurance policies that we write and for loss adjustment expenses related to the investigation and settlement of claims. Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses represent the estimated cost of all reported and unreported loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and unpaid at any given point in time based on known facts and circumstances. Reserves are based on estimates of the most likely ultimate cost of individual claims. These estimates are inherently uncertain. In addition, there are no policy limits on the liability for workers’ compensation claims as there are for other forms of insurance. Therefore, estimating reserves for workers’ compensation claims may be more uncertain than estimating reserves for other types of insurance claims with shorter or

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more definite periods between occurrence of the claim and final determination of the loss and with policy limits on liability for claim amounts.

Our focus on providing workers’ compensation insurance to employers engaged in hazardous industries results in our receiving relatively fewer but more severe claims than many other workers’ compensation insurance companies. Severe claims, which we define as claims having an estimated ultimate cost of more than $1.0 million, usually have a material effect on each accident year’s loss reserves (and our reported results of operations) as a result of both the number of severe claims reported in any year and the timing of claims in the year. As a result of our focus on higher severity, lower frequency business, our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses may have greater volatility than other workers’ compensation insurance companies.

For example, for the five-year period ended December 31, 2023 we had recorded 82 severe claims, or an average of 16 severe claims per year for accident years 2019 through 2023. The number of severe claims in any one accident year in this five-year period ranged from a low of 9 in 2023 to a high of 20 in 2021 and 2022. The average reported case severity for these claims ranged from $2.28 million for the 2023 accident year to $3.91 million for the 2021 accident year. For the five accident years, the case incurred for these severe claims accounted for an average of 16.6 percentage points of our overall loss and loss adjustment expense (LAE) ratio, measured at December 31, 2023.

Further, the ultimate cost of severe claims is more difficult to estimate, principally due to uncertainties as to medical treatment and outcome and the length and degree of disability. Because of these uncertainties, the estimate of the ultimate cost of severe claims can vary significantly as more information becomes available. As a result, at year end, the case reserve for a severe claim reported early in the year may be more accurate than the case reserve established for a severe claim reported late in the year.

A key assumption used by management in establishing loss reserves is that average per claim case incurred loss and loss adjustment expenses will increase year over year. We believe this increase primarily reflects medical and wage inflation and utilization. However, changes in per average claim case incurred loss and loss adjustment expenses can also be affected by frequency of severe claims in the applicable accident years.

As more fully described in “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report, the estimate for loss and loss adjustment expenses is established based upon management’s analysis of historical data, and factors and trends derived from that data, including claims reported, average claim amount incurred, case development, duration, severity and payment patterns, as well as subjective assumptions. This analysis includes reviews of case reserves for individual open severe claims in the current and prior years. Management reviews the outcomes from actuarial analyses to confirm the reasonableness of its reserve estimate.

Substantial judgment is required to determine the relevance of our historical experience and industry information under current facts and circumstances. The interpretation of this historical and industry data can be impacted by external forces, principally frequency and severity of unreported claims, length of time to achieve ultimate settlement of claims, utilization, inflation in medical costs and wages, insurance policy coverage interpretations, jury determinations and legislative changes. Accordingly, our reserves may prove to be inadequate to cover our actual losses. If we change our estimates, these changes would be reflected in our results of operations during the period in which the changes occurred, with increases in our reserves resulting in decreases in our earnings. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Our gross reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses at December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021 were $674.0 million, $696.0 million and $745.3 million, respectively. As a percentage of gross reserves at year end, IBNR represented 17.8% in 2023, 17.1% in 2022 and 16.1% in 2021.

In 2023, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $41.4 million. In 2022, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $40.6 million. In 2021, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $61.9 million.

The workers’ compensation insurance industry is cyclical in nature and influenced by many factors, including price competition, medical cost increases, natural and man-made disasters, changes in interest rates, changes in state laws and regulations, and general economic conditions. A hard market in our industry is characterized by decreased competition that results in higher premium rates, more restrictive policy coverage terms, and lower commissions paid to agencies. In contrast, a soft market is characterized by increased competition that results in lower premium rates, expanded policy coverage terms, and higher commissions paid to agencies. Our strategy is to focus on maintaining underwriting profitability throughout the cycle.

For additional information regarding our loss reserves and the analyses and methodologies used by management to establish these reserves, see the information under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

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Principal Revenue and Expense Items

Our revenues consist primarily of the following:

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned is the earned portion of our net premiums written. Net premiums written is equal to gross premiums written less premiums ceded to reinsurers. Gross premiums written includes the estimated annual premiums from each insurance policy we write in our voluntary and assigned risk businesses during a reporting period based on the policy effective date or the date the policy is bound, whichever is later.

Premiums are earned on a daily pro rata basis over the term of the policy. At the end of each reporting period, premiums written that are not earned are classified as unearned premiums and are earned in subsequent periods over the remaining term of the policy. Our insurance policies typically have a term of one year. Thus, for a one-year policy written on July 1, 2023 for an employer with constant payroll during the term of the policy, we would earn half of the premiums in 2023 and the other half in 2024. On a monthly basis, we also recognize net premiums earned from mandatory pooling arrangements.

We estimate the annual premiums to be paid by our policyholders when we issue the policies and record those amounts on our balance sheet as premiums receivable. We conduct premium audits on all of our voluntary business policyholders annually, upon the expiration of each policy, including when the policy is renewed. The purpose of these audits is to verify that policyholders have accurately reported their payroll expenses and employee job classifications, and therefore have paid us the premium required under the terms of the policies. The difference between the estimated premium and the ultimate premium is referred to as “earned but unbilled” premium, or EBUB premium. EBUB premium is subject to significant variability and can either increase or decrease earned premium based upon several factors, including changes in premium growth, industry mix and economic conditions. Due to the timing of audits and other adjustments, the ultimate premium earned is generally not determined for several months after the expiration of the policy.

We review the estimate of EBUB premiums on a quarterly basis using historical data and applying various assumptions based on the current market and economic conditions, and we record an adjustment to premium, related losses, and expenses as warranted.

Net Investment Income and Net Realized Gains and Losses on Investments. We invest our statutory surplus funds and the funds supporting our insurance liabilities in fixed maturity securities, equity securities and alternative investments. In addition, a portion of these funds are held in cash and cash equivalents to pay current claims. Our net investment income includes interest and dividends earned on our invested assets and amortization of premiums and discounts on our fixed maturity securities. We assess the performance of our investment portfolio using a standard tax equivalent yield metric. Investment income that is tax-exempt is increased by our marginal federal tax rate to express yield on tax-exempt securities on the same basis as taxable securities. Net realized gains and losses on our investments are reported separately from our net investment income. Net realized gains occur when our investment securities are sold for more than their cost or amortized cost, as applicable. Net realized losses occur when our investment securities are sold for less than their cost or amortized cost, as applicable. We classify the majority of our fixed maturity securities as held-to-maturity. The remainder of our fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale. Net unrealized gains or losses on our securities classified as available-for-sale are reported separately within accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) on our balance sheet. Changes in net unrealized gains or losses on our equity securities are recognized in net income.

Fee and Other Income. We recognize commission income earned on policies issued by other carriers that are sold by our wholly owned insurance agency subsidiary as the related services are performed. We also recognize a small portion of interest income from mandatory pooling arrangements in which we participate.

Our expenses consist primarily of the following:

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred represents our largest expense item and, for any given reporting period, includes estimates of future claim payments, changes in those estimates from prior reporting periods and costs associated with investigating, defending, and administering claims. These expenses fluctuate based on the amount and types of risks we insure. We record loss and loss adjustment expenses related to estimates of future claim payments based on case-by-case valuations and statistical analyses. We seek to establish all reserves at the most likely ultimate exposure based on our historical claims experience. It is typical for our more serious claims to take several years to settle and we revise our estimates as we receive additional information about the condition of the injured employees. Our ability to estimate loss and loss adjustment expenses accurately at the time of pricing our insurance policies is a critical factor in our profitability. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

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Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs. Underwriting and certain other operating costs are those expenses that we incur to underwrite and maintain the insurance policies we issue. These expenses include state and local premium taxes and fees and other operating costs, offset by commissions we receive from reinsurers under our reinsurance treaty programs. We pay state and local taxes, licenses and fees, assessments, and contributions to state workers’ compensation security funds based on premiums. In addition, other operating costs include general and administrative expenses, excluding commissions and salaries and benefits, incurred at both the insurance company and corporate level.

Commissions. We pay commissions to our subsidiary insurance agency and to the independent agencies that sell our insurance based on premiums collected from policyholders.

Salaries and Benefits. We pay salaries and provide benefits to our employees.

Policyholder Dividends. In limited circumstances, we pay dividends to policyholders in particular states as an underwriting incentive.

Income Tax Expense. We incur federal, state, and local income tax expense.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Understanding our accounting policies is key to understanding our financial statements. Management considers some of these policies to be very important to the presentation of our financial results because they require us to make significant estimates and assumptions. These estimates and assumptions affect the reported amounts of our assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses and related disclosures. Some of the estimates result from judgments that can be subjective and complex and, consequently, actual results in future periods might differ from these estimates.

Management believes that the most critical accounting policies relate to the reporting of reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses, including losses that have occurred but have not been reported prior to the reporting date, amounts recoverable from reinsurers, premiums receivable, assessments, deferred policy acquisition costs, deferred income taxes, credit losses on investment securities and share-based compensation.

The following is a description of our critical accounting policies.

Reserves for Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses. We record reserves for estimated losses under insurance policies that we write and for loss adjustment expenses, which include defense and cost containment (DCC) and adjusting and other (AO) expenses, related to the investigation and settlement of policy claims. Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses represent the estimated cost of all reported and unreported loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and unpaid at any given point in time based on known facts and circumstances.

Our reserves for loss and DCC expenses are estimated using case-by-case valuations based on our estimate of the most likely outcome of the claim at that time. In addition to these case reserves, we establish reserves on an aggregate basis that have been incurred but not reported (IBNR). Our IBNR reserves are also intended to provide for aggregate changes in case incurred amounts as well as for recently reported claims which an initial case reserve has not been established. The third component of our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses is our AO reserve. Our AO reserve is established for those future claims administration costs that cannot be allocated directly to individual claims. The final component of our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses is the reserve for mandatory pooling arrangements.

In establishing our reserves, we review the results of analyses using actuarial methods that utilize historical loss data from our more than 38 years of underwriting workers’ compensation insurance. The actuarial analysis of our historical data provides the factors we use in estimating our loss reserves. These factors are primarily measures over time of the number of claims paid and reported, average paid and incurred claim amounts, claim closure rates and claim payment patterns. In evaluating the results of our analyses, management also uses substantial judgment in considering other factors that are not considered in these actuarial analyses, including changes in business mix, claims management, regulatory issues, medical trends, employment and wage patterns, insurance policy coverage interpretations, judicial determinations and other subjective factors. Due to the inherent uncertainty associated with these estimates, and the cost of incurred but unreported claims, our actual liabilities may vary significantly from our original estimates.

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On a quarterly basis, we review our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses to determine whether adjustments are required. Any resulting adjustments are included in the results for the current period. In establishing our reserves, we do not use loss discounting, which would involve recognizing the time value of money and offsetting estimates of future payments by future expected investment income. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Amounts Recoverable from Reinsurers. Amounts recoverable from reinsurers represent the portion of our paid and unpaid loss and loss adjustment expenses that are assumed by reinsurers and related commissions due from reinsurers. These amounts are separately reported on our balance sheet as assets net of an allowance for credit losses and do not reduce our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses because reinsurance does not relieve us of liability to our policyholders. We are required to pay claims even if a reinsurer fails to pay us under the terms of a reinsurance contract. We calculate amounts recoverable from reinsurers based on our estimates of the underlying loss and loss adjustment expenses, as well as the terms and conditions of our reinsurance contracts, which could be subject to interpretation. In addition, we bear credit risk with respect to our reinsurers, which can be significant because some of the unpaid loss and loss adjustment expenses for which we have reinsurance coverage remain outstanding for extended periods of time.

Premiums Receivable. Premiums receivable represents premium-related balances due from our policyholders based on annual premiums for policies written, including surcharges and deposits and adjustments for premium audits, endorsements, cancellations, cash transactions and charge offs. The balance is shown net of an allowance for credit losses and includes an estimate for EBUB. The EBUB estimate is subject to significant variability and can either increase or decrease premiums receivable and earned premiums based upon several factors, including changes in premium growth, industry mix and economic conditions. EBUB assumptions include historical development factors, current economic outlook and current trends in particular sectors of our business.

Assessments. We are subject to various assessments and premium surcharges related to our insurance activities, including assessments and premium surcharges for state guaranty funds and second injury funds. Our accrual is based on historical assessments as well as updated assessment rates. Assessments based on premiums are recorded as an expense as premiums are earned and generally paid one year after the calendar year in which the policies are written. Assessments based on losses are recorded as an expense as losses are incurred and are generally paid within one year of the calendar year in which the claims are paid by us. State guaranty fund assessments are used by state insurance oversight agencies to pay claims of policyholders of impaired, insolvent or failed insurance companies and the operating expenses of those agencies. Second injury funds are used by states to reimburse insurers and employers for claims paid to injured employees for aggravation of prior conditions or injuries. In some states, these assessments and premium surcharges may be partially recovered through a reduction in future premium taxes.

Deferred Policy Acquisition Costs. We defer commission expenses, premium taxes and certain marketing, sales, underwriting and safety costs that vary with and primarily relate to the successful acquisition of insurance policies. These acquisition costs are capitalized and charged to expense ratably as premiums are earned. In calculating deferred policy acquisition costs, these costs are limited to their estimated realizable value, which gives effect to the premiums to be earned, anticipated losses and settlement expenses and certain other costs we expect to incur as the premiums are earned, less related net investment income. Judgments as to the ultimate recoverability of these deferred policy acquisition costs are highly dependent upon estimated future profitability of unearned premiums. If the unearned premiums were less than our expected claims and expenses after considering investment income, we would reduce the deferred costs.

Deferred Income Taxes. We use the liability method of accounting for income taxes. Under this method, deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributed to differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities resulting from a tax rate change impacts our net income or loss in the reporting period that includes the enactment date of the tax rate change.

In assessing whether our deferred tax assets will be realized, management considers whether it is more likely than not that we will generate future taxable income during the periods in which those temporary differences become deductible. Management considers the scheduled reversal of deferred tax liabilities, tax planning strategies and projected future taxable income in making this assessment. If necessary, we establish a valuation allowance to reduce the deferred tax assets to the amounts that are more likely than not to be realized.

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Credit Losses on Investment Securities. Investment securities are recorded on the balance sheet as assets net of an allowance for credit losses. For held-to-maturity fixed income securities, the allowance is based on historical default and recovery rates as published by Moody’s analytics for corporate bonds, municipal bonds, and other types of fixed income securities. For available-for-sale fixed income securities, a credit allowance is established if the expected discounted future cash flows no longer exceed the book value of the security. In determining the amount of the credit loss to establish, the Company considers the following factors:

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The extent to which the fair value is less than the amortized cost basis;

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Adverse conditions in the security, industry, or geography, including:

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Changes in technology

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Discontinuation of a segment of business that may affect future earnings

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Changes in the quality of the credit enhancement, if any

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Changes in the payment structure of debt security;

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Failure of the issuer to make scheduled interest or principal payments; and

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Any changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency.

Share-Based Compensation. In accordance with Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) Topic 718, Compensation-Stock Compensation, we recognize compensation costs for restricted stock, performance-based stock and stock option awards over the applicable vesting periods.

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Results of Operations

The table below summarizes certain operating results and key measures we use in monitoring and evaluating our operations.

(1)
Includes policy acquisition expenses, and other general and administrative expenses, excluding commissions and salaries and benefits, related to insurance operations and corporate operating expenses.

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(2)
The current accident year loss ratio is calculated by dividing loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred for the current accident year by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(3)
The prior accident year loss ratio is calculated by dividing the change in loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred for prior accident years by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(4)
The net underwriting expense ratio is calculated by dividing underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries, and benefits by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(5)
The net dividend ratio is calculated by dividing policyholder dividends by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(6)
The net combined ratio is the sum of the net loss ratio, the net underwriting expense ratio and the net dividend ratio.

Overview of Operating Results

Year Ended December 31, 2023 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2022

Gross Premiums Written. Gross premiums written for 2023 were $285.4 million, compared to $276.1 million for 2022, an increase of 3.3%. The increase was attributable to a $10.1 million increase in premiums resulting from payroll audits and related premium adjustments for policies written in previous periods, and a $0.8 million increase in annual premiums on voluntary policies written during the period. The increases were partially offset by a $1.6 million decrease in residual market premium.

Net Premiums Written. Net premiums written for 2023 were $268.7 million, compared to $265.6 million for 2022, an increase of 1.2%. The increase was primarily attributable to the increase in gross premiums written. As a percentage of gross premiums earned, ceded premiums were 5.9% for 2023 compared to 3.7% for 2022. Ceded premiums increased as we purchased higher levels of reinsurance coverage at generally higher prices in 2023. For additional information, see Item 1, “Business—Reinsurance.”

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned for 2023 were $267.1 million, compared to $271.7 million for 2022, a decrease of 1.7%. The decrease was primarily attributable to the increase in the cost of reinsurance.

Net Investment Income. Net investment income in 2023 was $31.3 million, an increase of 15.1% from the $27.2 million reported in 2022.. The increase was due to higher fixed income reinvestment rates in relation to portfolio rolloff. The average pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 3.4% per annum for 2023 versus 2.7% per annum for 2022. The year-end tax-equivalent yield on our investment portfolio was 3.7% per annum for 2023, compared to 3.4% per annum for 2022. The tax-equivalent yield is calculated using the effective interest rate and the appropriate marginal tax rate. Average invested assets, including cash and cash equivalents, decreased 9.1%, from an average of $1,051.2 million for 2022 to an average of $955.8 million for 2023.

Net Realized Gains (Losses) on Investments. Net realized gains on investments in 2023 totaled $6.6 million, compared to gains of $3.4 million in 2022. In 2023 and 2022, net realized gains resulted primarily from the sale of equity securities.

Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities. Net unrealized gains on equity securities in 2023 were $1.2 million compared to net unrealized losses of $8.1 million in 2022.

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and LAE incurred totaled $148.3 million for 2023, compared to $152.3 million for 2022, a decrease of $4.1 million, or 2.7% . The current accident year losses and LAE incurred were $189.7 million, or 71.0% of net premiums earned, compared to $192.9 million, or 71.0% of net premiums earned for 2022. We recorded favorable prior accident year development of $41.4 million in 2023, compared to $40.6 million in 2022. This is discussed in more detail below in “Prior Year Development.” Our net loss ratio was 55.5% for 2023 and 56.1% for 2022.

Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs, Commissions and Salaries and Benefits. Underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries and benefits for 2023 were $78.3 million, compared to $72.0 million for 2022. The Company experienced a $4.1 million increase in insurance related assessments, a $2.0 million increase in commission expense, a $1.5 million increase in professional fees, and a $0.8 million increase in compensation expense. The increase in insurance related assessments included a benefit of $3.8 million in 2022 due to the return of assessments from the Minnesota Workers' Compensation Reinsurance Association. Offsetting these amounts were a $1.6 million increase in profit sharing reinsurance commission, a decrease of $0.8 million in accounts receivable write-offs, a $0.6 million decrease in taxes, licenses and fees, and an increase of $0.5 million in ceding commission related to our current year reinsurance agreement. Our underwriting expense ratio increased to 29.3% in 2023 from 26.5% in 2022.

Income tax expense. Income tax expense for 2023 was $15.3 million, compared to $12.0 million for 2022. The effective tax rate increased to 19.7% for 2023, compared to 17.8% for 2022. The increase in the effective tax rate is due to a lower proportion of tax-exempt income to underwriting income in 2023 relative to 2022.

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Year Ended December 31, 2022 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2021

Gross Premiums Written. Gross premiums written for 2022 were $276.1 million, compared to $278.3 million for 2021, a decrease of 0.8%. The decrease was attributable to a $16.0 million decrease in annual premiums on voluntary policies written during the period primarily driven by continued declines in state approved loss costs. Assumed premium from mandatory pooling arrangements decreased $1.7 million. The decreases were partially offset by a $15.2 million increase in premiums resulting from payroll audits and related premium adjustments for policies written in previous quarters.

Net Premiums Written. Net premiums written for 2022 were $265.6 million, compared to $267.8 million for 2021, a decrease of 0.8%. The decrease was primarily attributable to the decrease in gross premiums written. As a percentage of gross premiums earned, ceded premiums were 3.7% for 2022 and 2021, respectively. For additional information, see Item 1, “Business—Reinsurance.”

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned for 2022 were $271.7 million, compared to $276.0 million for 2021, a decrease of 1.6%. The decrease was attributable to the decrease in net premiums written during the period.

Net Investment Income. Net investment income in 2022 was $27.2 million, an increase of 7.0% from the $25.4 million reported in 2021. The increase was due to higher interest rates on cash and fixed income securities in 2022 compared with 2021. The average pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 2.7% per annum for 2022 versus 2.3% per annum for 2021. The year-end tax-equivalent yield on our investment portfolio was 3.4% per annum for 2022, compared to 2.7% per annum for 2021. The tax-equivalent yield is calculated using the effective interest rate and the appropriate marginal tax rate. Average invested assets, including cash and cash equivalents, decreased 8.7%, from an average of $1,151.8 million for 2021 to an average of $1,051.2 million for 2022.

Net Realized Gains (Losses) on Investments. Net realized gains on investments in 2022 totaled $3.4 million, compared to gains of $1.7 million in 2021. In 2022, net realized gains resulted primarily from the sale of equity securities. In 2021, net realized gains of $1.7 million resulted from the sale of fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale.

Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities. Net unrealized losses on equity securities in 2022 were $8.1 million compared to net unrealized gains of $12.3 million in 2021 due to declines in the equity markets.

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and LAE incurred totaled $152.3 million for 2022, compared to $160.8 million for 2021, a decrease of $8.5 million, or 5.3%. The current accident year losses and LAE incurred were $192.9 million, or 71.0% of net premiums earned, compared to $222.7 million, or 80.7% of net premiums earned for 2021. We recorded favorable prior accident year development of $40.6 million in 2022, compared to $61.9 million in 2021. This is discussed in more detail below in “Prior Year Development.” Our net loss ratio was 56.1% for 2022 and 58.3% for 2021.

Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs, Commissions and Salaries and Benefits. Underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries and benefits for 2022 were $72.0 million, compared to $72.1 million for 2021. The Company experienced a $1.7 million decrease in insurance related assessments and a $1.4 million decrease in accounts receivable write-offs mostly on assumed premium from mandatory pooling arrangements. The decrease in insurance related assessments included a benefit of $3.8 million in 2022 due to the return of assessments from the Minnesota Workers' Compensation Reinsurance Association. Offsetting these amounts were a $0.9 million decrease in profit sharing reinsurance commission, an increase of $0.6 million in systems cost, and an increase of $0.6 million in compensation expense. Our underwriting expense ratio increased to 26.5% in 2022 from 26.1% in 2021.

Income Tax Expense. Income tax expense for 2022 was $12.0 million, compared to $13.7 million for 2021. The effective tax rate increased to 17.8% for 2022, compared to 17.2% for 2021. The increase in the effective tax rate is due to a lower proportion of tax-exempt income to underwriting income in 2022 relative to 2021.

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Prior Year Development

The Company recorded favorable prior accident year loss and loss adjustment expense development of $41.4 million in calendar year 2023, $40.6 million in calendar year 2022 and $61.9 million in calendar year 2021. The table below sets forth the favorable development for accident years 2018 through 2022 and, collectively, all accident years prior to 2018.

The table below sets forth the number of open claims as of December 31, 2023, 2022 and 2021, and the numbers of claims reported and closed during the years then ended.

At December 31, 2023, our incurred amounts for certain accident years developed more favorably than management previously expected. Multiple factors can cause loss development both unfavorable and favorable. The favorable loss development we experienced across accident years was largely due to two factors: (1) lower than expected severity of injuries in these accident years compared to our original and revised estimates; and (2) favorable case reserve development from closed claims and claims where the worker had reached maximum medical improvement. We believe the favorable case reserve development resulted primarily from an intensive claims management focus with the Company actively seeking to settle claims, leading to favorable development.

The assumptions we used in establishing our reserves for these accident years were based on our historical claims data. However, as of December 31, 2023, actual results for these accident years have been better than our assumptions would have predicted. We do not presently intend to modify our assumptions for establishing reserves in light of recent results. However, if actual results for current and future accident years are consistent with, or different than, our results in these recent accident years, our historical claims data will reflect this change and, over time, will impact the reserves we establish for future claims.

Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses are inherently uncertain and our focus on providing workers’ compensation insurance to employers engaged in hazardous industries results in our receiving relatively fewer but more severe claims than many other workers’ compensation insurance companies. As a result of this focus on higher severity, lower frequency business, our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses may have greater volatility than other workers’ compensation insurance companies. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Our principal sources of operating funds are premiums, investment income, and proceeds from maturities of investments. Our primary uses of operating funds include payments for claims and operating expenses. We pay claims, operating expenses, shareholder dividends and repurchases using cash flow from operations and invest our excess cash in fixed maturity and equity securities. We expect that our projected cash flow from operations will provide us sufficient liquidity to fund future operations, including payment of claims and operating expenses and other holding company expenses, for at least the next 18 months.

We forecast claim payments based on our historical trends. We seek to manage the funding of claim payments by actively managing available cash and forecasting cash flows on a short- and long-term basis. Cash payments, net of reinsurance, for claims were $177.5 million in 2023, $194.8 million in 2022 and $189.6 million in 2021. We fund claim payments out of cash flow from

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operations, principally premiums, net of amounts ceded to our reinsurers, and net investment income. Our investment portfolio at December 31, 2023 was $896.5 million.

As discussed above under “Overview,” we purchase reinsurance to reduce our net liability on individual risks and to protect against catastrophic losses. Based on our estimates of future claims, we believe we are sufficiently capitalized to satisfy the deductibles and retentions in our 2024 reinsurance program. We reevaluate our reinsurance program at least annually, taking into consideration a number of factors, including cost of reinsurance, our liquidity requirements, operating leverage and coverage terms.

Even if we maintain our existing retention levels, if the cost of reinsurance increases, our cash flow from operations would decrease as we would cede a greater portion of our written premiums to our reinsurers. Conversely, our cash flow from operations would increase if the cost of reinsurance declined relative to our retention.

We manage risk on certain long-duration claims by settling these claims through the purchase of annuities from unaffiliated life insurance companies. In the event these companies are unable to meet their obligations under these annuity contracts, we could be liable to the claimants, but our reinsurers remain obligated to indemnify us for all or part of these obligations in accordance with the terms of our reinsurance contracts. As of December 31, 2023, the present value of these annuities was $106.9 million, as estimated by our annuity providers. Substantially all of the annuities are issued or guaranteed by life insurance companies that have an A.M. Best rating of “A” (Excellent) or better. For additional information, see Note 16 to our consolidated financial statements in Item 8 of this report.

The Company has operating and finance leases for office space and equipment. Our leases have remaining lease terms of one month to 47 months, some of which include options to extend the leases for up to five years. The Company, in determining the present value of lease payments, utilizes either the rate implicit in the lease if that rate is readily determinable or the Company’s incremental secured borrowing rate commensurate with the term of the underlying lease.

Net cash provided by operating activities was $29.8 million in 2023, as compared to $28.2 million in 2022, and $38.0 million in 2021. Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2023 were net premiums collected of $261.0 million, investment income collected of $34.5 million, and reinsurance recoveries collected of $16.0 million. These amounts were offset in-part by claim payments of $172.9 million, $73.9 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $14.0 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $3.5 million.

Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2022 were net premiums collected of $278.9 million and investment income collected of $33.6 million. These amounts were offset in-part by claim payments of $206.3 million, $64.6 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $7.8 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $3.4 million.

Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2021 were net premiums collected of $290.2 million and investment income collected of $35.5 million. These amounts were offset in-part by claim payments of $189.6 million, $74.2 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $18.2 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $3.9 million.

Net cash provided by investing activities was $43.9 million in 2023, as compared to net cash provided by investing activities of $75.4 million in 2022 and net cash provided by investing activities of $71.0 million in 2021. In 2023, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $178.1 million, offset by investment purchases of $133.7 million.

In 2022, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $293.0 million, offset by investment purchases of $215.5 million.

In 2021, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $343.4 million, offset by investment purchases of $271.2 million.

Net cash used in financing activities was $96.5 million in 2023, as compared to $112.9 million in 2022 and $100.0 million in 2021. Major components of cash used in financing activities in 2023 included cash used for dividends paid to shareholders of $93.3 million, purchases of treasury stock of $2.2 million, and share-based compensation related tax withholding of $0.9 million.

Major components of cash used in financing activities in 2022 included cash used for dividends paid to shareholders of $100.4 million and purchases of treasury stock of $12.4 million.

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Major components of cash used in financing activities in 2021 included cash used for dividends paid to shareholders of $99.9 million.

In December 2023, the Company renewed a line of credit agreement with Frost Bank for borrowings up to a maximum of $20.0 million. Under the agreement, advances may be made either in the form of loans or letters of credit. Borrowings under the agreement accrue at interest rates based upon prime rate or one-month term SOFR rate and are unsecured. At December 31, 2023, there were no outstanding borrowings. Unless renewed, the agreement will expire in December 2024.

The Board of Directors initially authorized the Company’s share repurchase program in February 2010. In October 2016, the Board reauthorized this program with a limit of $25.0 million with no expiration date. As of December 31, 2023, we had repurchased a total of 1,569,440 shares of our outstanding common stock for $36.9 million. The Company had $10.4 million available for future purchases at December 31, 2023 under this program. There were 46,741 and 264,449 shares repurchased in 2023 and 2022, respectively. The purchases may be effected from time to time depending upon market conditions and subject to applicable regulatory considerations. It is anticipated that future purchases will be funded from available capital.

AMERISAFE is a holding company that transacts business through its operating subsidiaries, including AIIC, SOCI and AIICTX. AMERISAFE’s primary assets are the capital stock of these insurance subsidiaries. The ability of AMERISAFE to fund its operations depends upon the surplus and earnings of its subsidiaries and their ability to pay dividends to AMERISAFE. Payment of dividends by our insurance subsidiaries is restricted by state insurance laws, including laws establishing minimum solvency and liquidity thresholds. Based upon the prescribed calculation, the insurance subsidiaries could pay to AMERISAFE dividends of up to $52.6 million in 2024 without seeking regulatory approval. See “Business—Regulation—Dividend Limitations” in Item 1 of this report.

The Company paid regular quarterly cash dividends of $0.34, $0.31, and $0.29 per share in 2023, 2022 and 2021, respectively. In addition, the Company paid extraordinary cash dividends of $3.50 in 2023 and $4.00 per share in both 2022 and 2021.

On February 19, 2024, the Company declared a regular quarterly cash dividend of $0.37 per share payable on March 22, 2024 to shareholders of record as of March 8, 2024. The Board intends to continue to consider the payment of a regular cash dividend each calendar quarter. On an annualized basis, the cash dividend is expected to be $1.48 per share in 2024.

Investment Portfolio

The principal objectives of our investment portfolio are to preserve capital and surplus and to maintain appropriate liquidity for corporate requirements. Additional objectives are to support our A.M. Best rating of “A” (Excellent) and to maximize after-tax income and risk-adjusted total return. We presently expect to maintain sufficient liquidity from funds generated by operations to meet our anticipated insurance obligations and operating and capital expenditure needs. Excess funds from operations will be invested in accordance with our investment policy and statutory requirements.

We allocate our portfolio into four categories: cash and cash equivalents, short-term investments, fixed maturity securities and equity securities. Cash and cash equivalents include cash on deposit, money market funds and municipal securities, corporate securities and certificates of deposit with a maturity date, at the time of purchase, of 90 days or less. Short-term investments include municipal securities, corporate securities and certificates of deposit with an original maturity greater than 90 days but less than one year. Our fixed maturity securities include obligations of the U.S. Treasury or U.S. agencies, obligations of states and their subdivisions, U.S. Dollar-denominated obligations of the U.S. or Canadian corporations, U.S. agency mortgage-backed securities, commercial mortgage-backed securities and asset-backed securities.

Under Nebraska and Texas law, as applicable, each of AIIC, SOCI and AIICTX is required to invest only in securities that are either interest-bearing, interest-accruing or eligible for dividends, and must limit its investment in the securities of any single issuer, other than direct obligations of the United States, to five percent of the insurance company’s assets. As of December 31, 2023, we were in compliance with these requirements.

We employ diversification policies and balance investment credit risk and related underwriting risks to minimize our total potential exposure to any one business sector or security.

As of December 31, 2023, our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, totaled $896.5 million, a decrease of 5.7% from December 31, 2022. The majority of our fixed maturity securities are classified as held-to-maturity, as defined by FASB ASC Topic 320, Investments-Debt and Equity Securities. As such, the reported book value of those securities is equal to their amortized cost net of allowance for credit losses and does not fluctuate based on changing interest rates. The remainder of our fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale and reported at fair market value, less an allowance for credit losses, if any. Investments in equity securities are reported at fair market value.

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We follow FASB ASC Topic 820, Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures, which defines fair value, establishes a fair value hierarchy and requires an entity to maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs when measuring fair value. As disclosed in Note 18 of the financial statements, our securities available-for-sale are classified using Level 1, 2 and 3 inputs. We did not elect the fair value option prescribed under FASB ASC Topic 825, Financial Instruments, for any financial assets in 2022 or 2023.

The composition of our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, as of December 31, 2023 is shown in the following table.

The following table summarizes the gross unrealized losses and fair value of fixed income securities by the length of time that individual securities have been in a continuous unrealized loss position.

The pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 3.4% and 2.7% per annum during the twelve months ended December 31, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

The financial and business analysis below provides information which the Company believes is relevant to an assessment and understanding of its consolidated financial position, results of operations and cash flows. The following discussion of our financial condition and results of operations should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and the notes thereto included in Item 8 of this report. This discussion includes forward-looking statements that are subject to risks, uncertainties and other factors described in Item 1A of this report. These factors could cause our actual results in 2023 and beyond to differ materially from those expressed in, or implied by, those forward-looking statements.

Overview

AMERISAFE is a holding company that markets and underwrites workers’ compensation insurance through its insurance subsidiaries. Workers’ compensation insurance covers statutorily prescribed benefits that employers are obligated to provide to their employees who are injured in the course and scope of their employment. Our business strategy is focused on providing this coverage to small to mid-sized employers engaged in hazardous industries, principally construction, trucking, logging and lumber, agriculture, manufacturing, telecommunications, and maritime. Employers engaged in hazardous industries pay substantially higher than average rates for workers’ compensation insurance compared to employers in other industries, as measured per payroll dollar. The higher premium rates are due to the nature of the work performed and the inherent workplace danger of our target employers. Hazardous industry employers also tend to have less frequent but more severe claims as compared to employers in other industries due to the nature of their businesses. We provide proactive safety reviews of employers’ workplaces. These safety reviews are a vital component of our underwriting process and also promote safer workplaces. We utilize intensive claims management practices that we believe permit us to reduce the overall cost of our claims. In addition, our audit services ensure that our policyholders pay the appropriate premiums required under the terms of their policies and enable us to monitor payroll patterns that cause underwriting, safety or fraud concerns. We believe that the higher premiums typically paid by our policyholders, together with our disciplined underwriting and safety, claims and audit services, provide us with the opportunity to earn attractive returns for our shareholders.

We actively market our insurance in 27 states through independent agencies, as well as through our wholly owned insurance agency subsidiary. We are also licensed in an additional 20 states, the District of Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Two of the key financial measures that we use to evaluate our performance are return on average equity and growth in book value per share adjusted for dividends paid to shareholders. We calculate return on average equity by dividing annual net income by the average of annual shareholders’ equity. Our return on average equity was 15.5% in 2022, 15.7% in 2021 and 19.9% in 2020. We calculate book value per share by dividing ending shareholders’ equity by the number of common shares outstanding. Our book value per share was $16.57 at December 31, 2022, $20.62 at December 31, 2021 and $22.70 at December 31, 2020. We paid cash dividends of $5.24 per share in 2022, $5.16 per share in 2021 and $4.58 per share in 2020.

Investment income is an important element of our net income. Because the period of time between our receipt of premiums and the ultimate settlement of claims is often several years or longer, we are able to invest cash from premiums for significant periods of time. As a result, we are able to generate more investment income from our premiums as compared to insurance companies that operate in other lines of business that pay claims more quickly. At December 31, 2022, our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, was $950.5 million and produced net investment income of $27.2 million in 2022, $25.4 million in 2021 and $29.4 million in 2020.

The use of reinsurance is an important component of our business strategy. We purchase reinsurance to reduce our net liability on individual risks and to protect against catastrophic losses. Our reinsurance program for 2023 includes 24 reinsurers that provide coverage to us in excess of a certain specified loss amount, or retention level. Our 2023 reinsurance program provides us with reinsurance coverage for each loss occurrence up to $100.0 million, subject to applicable limitations, deductibles, retentions and aggregate limits. However, for any loss occurrence involving only one claimant, our reinsurance coverage is limited to $20.0 million, subject to applicable deductibles, retentions and aggregate limits. Losses in the layer between $2.0 million and $10.0 million are ceded to a multi-year reinsurance treaty. As losses are incurred and recorded, we record amounts recoverable from reinsurers for the portion of the losses ceded to our reinsurers.

Our most significant balance sheet liability is our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses. We record reserves for estimated losses under insurance policies that we write and for loss adjustment expenses related to the investigation and settlement of claims. Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses represent the estimated cost of all reported and unreported loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and unpaid at any given point in time based on known facts and circumstances. Reserves are based on estimates of the most likely ultimate cost of individual claims. These estimates are inherently uncertain. In addition, there are no policy limits on the liability for workers’ compensation claims as there are for other forms of insurance. Therefore, estimating reserves

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for workers’ compensation claims may be more uncertain than estimating reserves for other types of insurance claims with shorter or more definite periods between occurrence of the claim and final determination of the loss and with policy limits on liability for claim amounts.

Our focus on providing workers’ compensation insurance to employers engaged in hazardous industries results in our receiving relatively fewer but more severe claims than many other workers’ compensation insurance companies. Severe claims, which we define as claims having an estimated ultimate cost of more than $1.0 million, usually have a material effect on each accident year’s loss reserves (and our reported results of operations) as a result of both the number of severe claims reported in any year and the timing of claims in the year. As a result of our focus on higher severity, lower frequency business, our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses may have greater volatility than other workers’ compensation insurance companies.

For example, for the five-year period ended December 31, 2022 we had recorded 81 severe claims, or an average of 16 severe claims per year for accident years 2018 through 2022. The number of severe claims in any one accident year in this five-year period ranged from a low of 13 in 2022 and 2018 to a high of 20 in 2021. The average reported case severity for these claims ranged from $1.96 million for the 2022 accident year to $3.6 million for the 2021 accident year. For the five accident years, the case incurred for these severe claims accounted for an average of 14.5 percentage points of our overall loss and loss adjustment expense (LAE) ratio measured at December 31, 2022.

Further, the ultimate cost of severe claims is more difficult to estimate, principally due to uncertainties as to medical treatment and outcome and the length and degree of disability. Because of these uncertainties, the estimate of the ultimate cost of severe claims can vary significantly as more information becomes available. As a result, at year end, the case reserve for a severe claim reported early in the year may be more accurate than the case reserve established for a severe claim reported late in the year.

A key assumption used by management in establishing loss reserves is that average per claim case incurred loss and loss adjustment expenses will increase year over year. We believe this increase primarily reflects medical and wage inflation and utilization. However, changes in per average claim case incurred loss and loss adjustment expenses can also be affected by frequency of severe claims in the applicable accident years.

As more fully described in “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report, the estimate for loss and loss adjustment expenses is established based upon management’s analysis of historical data, and factors and trends derived from that data, including claims reported, average claim amount incurred, case development, duration, severity and payment patterns, as well as subjective assumptions. This analysis includes reviews of case reserves for individual open severe claims in the current and prior years. Management reviews the outcomes from actuarial analyses to confirm the reasonableness of its reserve estimate.

Substantial judgment is required to determine the relevance of our historical experience and industry information under current facts and circumstances. The interpretation of this historical and industry data can be impacted by external forces, principally frequency and severity of unreported claims, length of time to achieve ultimate settlement of claims, utilization, inflation in medical costs and wages, insurance policy coverage interpretations, jury determinations and legislative changes. Accordingly, our reserves may prove to be inadequate to cover our actual losses. If we change our estimates, these changes would be reflected in our results of operations during the period in which the changes occurred, with increases in our reserves resulting in decreases in our earnings. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Our gross reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses at December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020 were $696.0 million, $745.3 million and $760.6 million, respectively. As a percentage of gross reserves at year end, IBNR represented 17.1% in 2022, 16.1% in 2021 and 16.8% in 2020.

In 2022, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $40.6 million. In 2021, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $61.9 million. In 2020, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $63.5 million.

The workers’ compensation insurance industry is cyclical in nature and influenced by many factors, including price competition, medical cost increases, natural and man-made disasters, changes in interest rates, changes in state laws and regulations, and general economic conditions. A hard market in our industry is characterized by decreased competition that results in higher premium rates, more restrictive policy coverage terms, and lower commissions paid to agencies. In contrast, a soft market is characterized by increased competition that results in lower premium rates, expanded policy coverage terms, and higher commissions paid to agencies. Our strategy is to focus on maintaining underwriting profitability throughout the cycle.

For additional information regarding our loss reserves and the analyses and methodologies used by management to establish these reserves, see the information under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

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Principal Revenue and Expense Items

Our revenues consist primarily of the following:

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned is the earned portion of our net premiums written. Net premiums written is equal to gross premiums written less premiums ceded to reinsurers. Gross premiums written includes the estimated annual premiums from each insurance policy we write in our voluntary and assigned risk businesses during a reporting period based on the policy effective date or the date the policy is bound, whichever is later.

Premiums are earned on a daily pro rata basis over the term of the policy. At the end of each reporting period, premiums written that are not earned are classified as unearned premiums and are earned in subsequent periods over the remaining term of the policy. Our insurance policies typically have a term of one year. Thus, for a one-year policy written on July 1, 2022 for an employer with constant payroll during the term of the policy, we would earn half of the premiums in 2022 and the other half in 2023. On a monthly basis, we also recognize net premiums earned from mandatory pooling arrangements.

We estimate the annual premiums to be paid by our policyholders when we issue the policies and record those amounts on our balance sheet as premiums receivable. We conduct premium audits on all of our voluntary business policyholders annually, upon the expiration of each policy, including when the policy is renewed. The purpose of these audits is to verify that policyholders have accurately reported their payroll expenses and employee job classifications, and therefore have paid us the premium required under the terms of the policies. The difference between the estimated premium and the ultimate premium is referred to as “earned but unbilled” premium, or EBUB premium. EBUB premium is subject to significant variability and can either increase or decrease earned premium based upon several factors, including changes in premium growth, industry mix and economic conditions. Due to the timing of audits and other adjustments, the ultimate premium earned is generally not determined for several months after the expiration of the policy.

We review the estimate of EBUB premiums on a quarterly basis using historical data and applying various assumptions based on the current market and economic conditions, and we record an adjustment to premium, related losses, and expenses as warranted.

Net Investment Income and Net Realized Gains and Losses on Investments. We invest our statutory surplus funds and the funds supporting our insurance liabilities in fixed maturity securities, equity securities and alternative investments. In addition, a portion of these funds are held in cash and cash equivalents to pay current claims. Our net investment income includes interest and dividends earned on our invested assets and amortization of premiums and discounts on our fixed maturity securities. We assess the performance of our investment portfolio using a standard tax equivalent yield metric. Investment income that is tax-exempt is increased by our marginal federal tax rate to express yield on tax-exempt securities on the same basis as taxable securities. Net realized gains and losses on our investments are reported separately from our net investment income. Net realized gains occur when our investment securities are sold for more than their cost or amortized cost, as applicable. Net realized losses occur when our investment securities are sold for less than their cost or amortized cost, as applicable. We classify the majority of our fixed maturity securities as held-to-maturity. The remainder of our fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale. Net unrealized gains or losses on our securities classified as available-for-sale are reported separately within accumulated other comprehensive income on our balance sheet. Changes in net unrealized gains or losses on our equity securities are recognized in net income.

Fee and Other Income. We recognize commission income earned on policies issued by other carriers that are sold by our wholly owned insurance agency subsidiary as the related services are performed. We also recognize a small portion of interest income from mandatory pooling arrangements in which we participate.

Our expenses consist primarily of the following:

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred represents our largest expense item and, for any given reporting period, includes estimates of future claim payments, changes in those estimates from prior reporting periods and costs associated with investigating, defending, and administering claims. These expenses fluctuate based on the amount and types of risks we insure. We record loss and loss adjustment expenses related to estimates of future claim payments based on case-by-case valuations and statistical analyses. We seek to establish all reserves at the most likely ultimate exposure based on our historical claims experience. It is typical for our more serious claims to take several years to settle and we revise our estimates as we receive additional information about the condition of the injured employees. Our ability to estimate loss and loss adjustment expenses accurately at the time of pricing our insurance policies is a critical factor in our profitability. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

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Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs. Underwriting and certain other operating costs are those expenses that we incur to underwrite and maintain the insurance policies we issue. These expenses include state and local premium taxes and fees and other operating costs, offset by commissions we receive from reinsurers under our reinsurance treaty programs. We pay state and local taxes, licenses and fees, assessments, and contributions to state workers’ compensation security funds based on premiums. In addition, other operating costs include general and administrative expenses, excluding commissions and salaries and benefits, incurred at both the insurance company and corporate level.

Commissions. We pay commissions to our subsidiary insurance agency and to the independent agencies that sell our insurance based on premiums collected from policyholders.

Salaries and Benefits. We pay salaries and provide benefits to our employees.

Policyholder Dividends. In limited circumstances, we pay dividends to policyholders in particular states as an underwriting incentive.

Income Tax Expense. We incur federal, state, and local income tax expense.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Understanding our accounting policies is key to understanding our financial statements. Management considers some of these policies to be very important to the presentation of our financial results because they require us to make significant estimates and assumptions. These estimates and assumptions affect the reported amounts of our assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses and related disclosures. Some of the estimates result from judgments that can be subjective and complex and, consequently, actual results in future periods might differ from these estimates.

Management believes that the most critical accounting policies relate to the reporting of reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses, including losses that have occurred but have not been reported prior to the reporting date, amounts recoverable from reinsurers, premiums receivable, assessments, deferred policy acquisition costs, deferred income taxes, credit losses on investment securities and share-based compensation.

The following is a description of our critical accounting policies.

Reserves for Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses. We record reserves for estimated losses under insurance policies that we write and for loss adjustment expenses, which include defense and cost containment (DCC) and adjusting and other (AO) expenses, related to the investigation and settlement of policy claims. Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses represent the estimated cost of all reported and unreported loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and unpaid at any given point in time based on known facts and circumstances.

Our reserves for loss and DCC expenses are estimated using case-by-case valuations based on our estimate of the most likely outcome of the claim at that time. In addition to these case reserves, we establish reserves on an aggregate basis that have been incurred but not reported (IBNR). Our IBNR reserves are also intended to provide for aggregate changes in case incurred amounts as well as for recently reported claims which an initial case reserve has not been established. The third component of our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses is our AO reserve. Our AO reserve is established for those future claims administration costs that cannot be allocated directly to individual claims. The final component of our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses is the reserve for mandatory pooling arrangements.

In establishing our reserves, we review the results of analyses using actuarial methods that utilize historical loss data from our more than 37 years of underwriting workers’ compensation insurance. The actuarial analysis of our historical data provides the factors we use in estimating our loss reserves. These factors are primarily measures over time of the number of claims paid and reported, average paid and incurred claim amounts, claim closure rates and claim payment patterns. In evaluating the results of our analyses, management also uses substantial judgment in considering other factors that are not considered in these actuarial analyses, including changes in business mix, claims management, regulatory issues, medical trends, employment and wage patterns, insurance policy coverage interpretations, judicial determinations and other subjective factors. Due to the inherent uncertainty associated with these estimates, and the cost of incurred but unreported claims, our actual liabilities may vary significantly from our original estimates.

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On a quarterly basis, we review our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses to determine whether adjustments are required. Any resulting adjustments are included in the results for the current period. In establishing our reserves, we do not use loss discounting, which would involve recognizing the time value of money and offsetting estimates of future payments by future expected investment income. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Amounts Recoverable from Reinsurers. Amounts recoverable from reinsurers represent the portion of our paid and unpaid loss and loss adjustment expenses that are assumed by reinsurers and related commissions due from reinsurers. These amounts are separately reported on our balance sheet as assets net of an allowance for credit losses and do not reduce our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses because reinsurance does not relieve us of liability to our policyholders. We are required to pay claims even if a reinsurer fails to pay us under the terms of a reinsurance contract. We calculate amounts recoverable from reinsurers based on our estimates of the underlying loss and loss adjustment expenses, as well as the terms and conditions of our reinsurance contracts, which could be subject to interpretation. In addition, we bear credit risk with respect to our reinsurers, which can be significant because some of the unpaid loss and loss adjustment expenses for which we have reinsurance coverage remain outstanding for extended periods of time.

Premiums Receivable. Premiums receivable represents premium-related balances due from our policyholders based on annual premiums for policies written, including surcharges and deposits and adjustments for premium audits, endorsements, cancellations, cash transactions and charge offs. The balance is shown net of an allowance for credit losses and includes an estimate for EBUB. The EBUB estimate is subject to significant variability and can either increase or decrease premiums receivable and earned premiums based upon several factors, including changes in premium growth, industry mix and economic conditions. EBUB assumptions include historical development factors, current economic outlook and current trends in particular sectors of our business.

Assessments. We are subject to various assessments and premium surcharges related to our insurance activities, including assessments and premium surcharges for state guaranty funds and second injury funds. Our accrual is based on historical assessments as well as updated assessment rates. Assessments based on premiums are recorded as an expense as premiums are earned and generally paid one year after the calendar year in which the policies are written. Assessments based on losses are recorded as an expense as losses are incurred and are generally paid within one year of the calendar year in which the claims are paid by us. State guaranty fund assessments are used by state insurance oversight agencies to pay claims of policyholders of impaired, insolvent or failed insurance companies and the operating expenses of those agencies. Second injury funds are used by states to reimburse insurers and employers for claims paid to injured employees for aggravation of prior conditions or injuries. In some states, these assessments and premium surcharges may be partially recovered through a reduction in future premium taxes.

Deferred Policy Acquisition Costs. We defer commission expenses, premium taxes and certain marketing, sales, underwriting and safety costs that vary with and primarily relate to the successful acquisition of insurance policies. These acquisition costs are capitalized and charged to expense ratably as premiums are earned. In calculating deferred policy acquisition costs, these costs are limited to their estimated realizable value, which gives effect to the premiums to be earned, anticipated losses and settlement expenses and certain other costs we expect to incur as the premiums are earned, less related net investment income. Judgments as to the ultimate recoverability of these deferred policy acquisition costs are highly dependent upon estimated future profitability of unearned premiums. If the unearned premiums were less than our expected claims and expenses after considering investment income, we would reduce the deferred costs.

Deferred Income Taxes. We use the liability method of accounting for income taxes. Under this method, deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributed to differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities resulting from a tax rate change impacts our net income or loss in the reporting period that includes the enactment date of the tax rate change.

In assessing whether our deferred tax assets will be realized, management considers whether it is more likely than not that we will generate future taxable income during the periods in which those temporary differences become deductible. Management considers the scheduled reversal of deferred tax liabilities, tax planning strategies and projected future taxable income in making this assessment. If necessary, we establish a valuation allowance to reduce the deferred tax assets to the amounts that are more likely than not to be realized.

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Credit Losses on Investment Securities. Investment securities are recorded on the balance sheet as assets net of an allowance for credit losses. For held-to-maturity fixed income securities, the allowance is based on historical default and recovery rates as published by Moody’s analytics for corporate bonds, municipal bonds, and other types of fixed income securities. For available-for-sale fixed income securities, a credit allowance is established if the expected discounted future cash flows no longer exceed the book value of the security. In determining the amount of the credit loss to establish, the Company considers the following factors:

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The extent to which the fair value is less than the amortized cost basis

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Adverse conditions in the security, industry, or geography, including:

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Changes in technology

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Discontinuation of a segment of business that may affect future earnings

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Changes in the quality of the credit enhancement, if any

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Changes in the payment structure of debt security

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Failure of the issuer to make scheduled interest or principal payments

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Any changes to the rating of the security by a rating agency

Share-Based Compensation. In accordance with Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) Topic 718, Compensation-Stock Compensation, we recognize compensation costs for restricted stock, performance-based stock and stock option awards over the applicable vesting periods.

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Results of Operations

The table below summarizes certain operating results and key measures we use in monitoring and evaluating our operations.

(1)
Includes policy acquisition expenses, and other general and administrative expenses, excluding commissions and salaries and benefits, related to insurance operations and corporate operating expenses.

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(2)
The current accident year loss ratio is calculated by dividing loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred for the current accident year by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(3)
The prior accident year loss ratio is calculated by dividing the change in loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred for prior accident years by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(4)
The net underwriting expense ratio is calculated by dividing underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries, and benefits by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(5)
The net dividend ratio is calculated by dividing policyholder dividends by the current year’s net premiums earned.

(6)
The net combined ratio is the sum of the net loss ratio, the net underwriting expense ratio and the net dividend ratio.

Overview of Operating Results

Year Ended December 31, 2022 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2021

Gross Premiums Written. Gross premiums written for 2022 were $276.1 million, compared to $278.3 million for 2021, a decrease of 0.8%. The decrease was attributable to a $16.0 million decrease in annual premiums on voluntary policies written during the period primarily driven by continued declines in state approved loss costs. Assumed premium from mandatory pooling arrangements decreased $1.7 million. The decreases were partially offset by a $15.2 million increase in premiums resulting from payroll audits and related premium adjustments for policies written in previous quarters.

Net Premiums Written. Net premiums written for 2022 were $265.6 million, compared to $267.8 million for 2021, a decrease of 0.8%. The decrease was primarily attributable to the decrease in gross premiums written. As a percentage of gross premiums earned, ceded premiums were 3.7% for 2022 and 2021, respectively. For additional information, see Item 1, “Business—Reinsurance.”

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned for 2022 were $271.7 million, compared to $276.0 million for 2021, a decrease of 1.6%. The decrease was attributable to the decrease in net premiums written during the period.

Net Investment Income. Net investment income in 2022 was $27.2 million, an increase of 7.0% from the $25.4 million reported in 2021. The increase was due to higher interest rates on cash and fixed income securities in 2022 compared with 2021. The average pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 2.7% per annum for 2022 versus 2.3% per annum for 2021. The year-end tax-equivalent yield on our investment portfolio was 3.4% per annum for 2022, compared to 2.7% per annum for 2021. The tax-equivalent yield is calculated using the effective interest rate and the appropriate marginal tax rate. Average invested assets, including cash and cash equivalents, decreased 8.7%, from an average of $1,151.8 million for 2021 to an average of $1,051.2 million for 2022.

Net Realized Gains (Losses) on Investments. Net realized gains on investments in 2022 totaled $3.4 million, compared to gains of $1.7 million in 2021. In 2022, net realized gains resulted primarily from the sale of equity securities. In 2021, net realized gains of $1.7 million resulted from the sale of fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale.

Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities. Net unrealized losses on equity securities in 2022 were $8.1 million compared to net unrealized gains of $12.3 million in 2021 due to declines in the equity markets.

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and LAE incurred totaled $152.3 million for 2022, compared to $160.8 million for 2021, a decrease of $8.5 million, or 5.3%. The current accident year losses and LAE incurred were $192.9 million, or 71.0% of net premiums earned, compared to $222.7 million, or 80.7% of net premiums earned for 2021. We recorded favorable prior accident year development of $40.6 million in 2022, compared to $61.9 million in 2021. This is discussed in more detail below in “Prior Year Development.” Our net loss ratio was 56.1% for 2022 and 58.3% for 2021.

Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs, Commissions and Salaries and Benefits. Underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries and benefits for 2022 were $72.0 million, compared to $72.1 million for 2021. The Company experienced a $1.7 million decrease in insurance related assessments and a $1.4 million decrease in accounts receivable write-offs mostly on assumed premium from mandatory pooling arrangements. The decrease in insurance related assessments included a benefit of $3.8 million in 2022 due to the return of assessments from the Minnesota Workers' Compensation Reinsurance Association. Offsetting these amounts were a $0.9 million decrease in profit sharing reinsurance commission, an increase of $0.6 million in systems cost, and an increase of $0.6 million in compensation expense. Our underwriting expense ratio increased to 26.5% in 2022 from 26.1% in 2021.

Income Tax Expense. Income tax expense for 2022 was $12.0 million, compared to $13.7 million for 2021. The effective tax rate also increased to 17.8% for 2022, compared to 17.2% for 2021. The increase in the effective tax rate is due to a lower proportion of tax-exempt income to underwriting income in 2022 relative to 2021.

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Year Ended December 31, 2021 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2020

Gross Premiums Written. Gross premiums written for 2021 were $278.3 million, compared to $303.1 million for 2020, a decrease of 8.2%. The decrease was attributable to a $18.0 million decrease in annual premiums on voluntary policies written during the period primarily driven by continued declines in state approved loss costs. Premiums resulting from payroll audits and related premium adjustments for policies written in previous periods decreased by $7.7 million. The decreases were offset by a $0.8 million increase in assumed premium from mandatory pooling arrangements. Payroll audits completed this year included periods of activity impacted by COVID-19. Related premium adjustments in 2021 include a $1.6 million increase in “earned but unbilled,” or EBUB, premium.

Net Premiums Written. Net premiums written for 2021 were $267.8 million, compared to $292.8 million for 2020, a decrease of 8.5%. The decrease was primarily attributable to the decrease in gross premiums written. As a percentage of gross premiums earned, ceded premiums were 3.7% for 2021 compared to 3.3% for 2020. The increase in ceded premiums as a percentage of gross premiums earned reflects additional ceded premium of $0.6 million resulting from excess ceded losses. For additional information, see Item 1, “Business—Reinsurance.”

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned for 2021 were $276.0 million, compared to $304.4 million for 2020, a decrease of 9.3%. The decrease was attributable to the decrease in net premiums written during the period.

Net Investment Income. Net investment income in 2021 was $25.4 million, a decrease of 13.4% from the $29.4 million reported in 2020. The decrease was due to lower interest rates on fixed income securities in 2021 compared with 2020. The pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 2.3% per annum for 2021 versus 2.5% per annum for 2020. The tax-equivalent yield on our investment portfolio was 2.7% per annum for 2021, compared to 2.9% per annum for 2020. The tax-equivalent yield is calculated using the effective interest rate and the appropriate marginal tax rate. Average invested assets, including cash and cash equivalents, decreased 3.3%, from an average of $1,191.7 million for 2020 to an average of $1,151.8 million for 2021.

Net Realized Gains (Losses) on Investments. Net realized gains on investments in 2021 totaled $1.7 million, compared to $1.1 million in 2020. In 2021, net realized gains of $1.7 million resulted from the sale of fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale. In 2020, net realized gains of $1.0 million resulted from the sale of fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale and $0.1 million from redemptions of fixed maturity securities.

Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities. Net unrealized gains on equity securities in 2021 were $12.3 million compared to net unrealized gains of $4.2 million in 2020 due to strong appreciation of our common stock investments in 2021.

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and LAE incurred totaled $160.8 million for 2021, compared to $157.2 million for 2020, an increase of $3.6 million, or 2.3%. The current accident year losses and LAE incurred were $222.7 million, or 80.7% of net premiums earned, compared to $220.7 million, or 72.5% of net premiums earned for 2020. We recorded favorable prior accident year development of $61.9 million in 2021, compared to $63.5 million in 2020. Our net loss ratio was 58.3% for 2021 and 51.6% for 2020. The increase in the 2021 accident year loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and net loss ratios resulted from a catastrophic claim reported in the year.

Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs, Commissions and Salaries and Benefits. Underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries and benefits for 2021 were $72.1 million, compared to $71.9 million for 2020, an increase of $0.1 million, or 0.2%. This increase was primarily due to a $2.7 million increase in insurance related assessments, a $1.7 million increase in accounts receivable write-offs mostly on assumed premium from mandatory pooling arrangements, and a $0.7 million increase in professional fees. The increase in insurance related assessments resulted from a benefit of $5.7 million recorded in the prior year due to the early termination of an assessment related to a state multiple injury fund. The increases above were partially offset by a decrease of $2.0 million in compensation expense, a decrease of $1.9 million in commission expense, an increase of $1.0 million in profit sharing reinsurance commission, and a decrease of 0.7 million in premium taxes. Our underwriting expense ratio increased to 26.1% in 2021 from 23.6% in 2020.

Income Tax Expense. Income tax expense for 2021 was $13.7 million, compared to $20.3 million for 2020. The effective tax rate also decreased to 17.2% for 2021, compared to 19.0% for 2020. This decrease in the effective tax rate is due to a higher proportion of tax-exempt income to underwriting income in 2021 relative to 2020 and a reduction in a valuation allowance on deferred state tax assets.

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Prior Year Development

The Company recorded favorable prior accident year loss and loss adjustment expense development of $40.6 million in calendar year 2022, $61.9 million in calendar year 2021 and $63.5 million in calendar year 2020. The table below sets forth the favorable development for accident years 2017 through 2021 and, collectively, all accident years prior to 2017.

The table below sets forth the number of open claims as of December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020, and the numbers of claims reported and closed during the years then ended.

At December 31, 2022, our incurred amounts for certain accident years, particularly 2017 through 2020, developed more favorably than management previously expected. Multiple factors can cause loss development both unfavorable and favorable. The favorable loss development we experienced across accident years was largely due to two factors: (1) lower than expected severity of injuries in these accident years compared to our original and revised estimates; and (2) favorable case reserve development from closed claims and claims where the worker had reached maximum medical improvement. We believe the favorable case reserve development resulted primarily from an intensive claims management focus with the Company actively seeking to settle claims, leading to favorable development.

The assumptions we used in establishing our reserves for these accident years were based on our historical claims data. However, as of December 31, 2022, actual results for these accident years have been better than our assumptions would have predicted. We do not presently intend to modify our assumptions for establishing reserves in light of recent results. However, if actual results for current and future accident years are consistent with, or different than, our results in these recent accident years, our historical claims data will reflect this change and, over time, will impact the reserves we establish for future claims.

Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses are inherently uncertain and our focus on providing workers’ compensation insurance to employers engaged in hazardous industries results in our receiving relatively fewer but more severe claims than many other workers’ compensation insurance companies. As a result of this focus on higher severity, lower frequency business, our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses may have greater volatility than other workers’ compensation insurance companies. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Liquidity and Capital Resources

Our principal sources of operating funds are premiums, investment income, and proceeds from maturities of investments. Our primary uses of operating funds include payments for claims and operating expenses. We pay claims, operating expenses, shareholder dividends and repurchases using cash flow from operations and invest our excess cash in fixed maturity and equity securities. We expect that our projected cash flow from operations will provide us sufficient liquidity to fund future operations, including payment of claims and operating expenses and other holding company expenses, for at least the next 18 months.

We forecast claim payments based on our historical trends. We seek to manage the funding of claim payments by actively managing available cash and forecasting cash flows on a short- and long-term basis. Cash payments, net of reinsurance, for claims

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were $194.8 million in 2022, $189.6 million in 2021 and $179.9 million in 2020. We fund claim payments out of cash flow from operations, principally premiums, net of amounts ceded to our reinsurers, and net investment income. Our investment portfolio at December 31, 2022 was $950.5 million.

As discussed above under “Overview,” we purchase reinsurance to reduce our net liability on individual risks and to protect against catastrophic losses. Based on our estimates of future claims, we believe we are sufficiently capitalized to satisfy the deductibles and retentions in our 2023 reinsurance program. We reevaluate our reinsurance program at least annually, taking into consideration a number of factors, including cost of reinsurance, our liquidity requirements, operating leverage and coverage terms.

Even if we maintain our existing retention levels, if the cost of reinsurance increases, our cash flow from operations would decrease as we would cede a greater portion of our written premiums to our reinsurers. Conversely, our cash flow from operations would increase if the cost of reinsurance declined relative to our retention.

We manage risk on certain long-duration claims by settling these claims through the purchase of annuities from unaffiliated life insurance companies. In the event these companies are unable to meet their obligations under these annuity contracts, we could be liable to the claimants, but our reinsurers remain obligated to indemnify us for all or part of these obligations in accordance with the terms of our reinsurance contracts. As of December 31, 2022, the present value of these annuities was $99.7 million, as estimated by our annuity providers. Substantially all of the annuities are issued or guaranteed by life insurance companies that have an A.M. Best rating of “A” (Excellent) or better. For additional information, see Note 16 to our consolidated financial statements in Item 8 of this report.

The Company has operating and finance leases for office space and equipment. Our leases have remaining lease terms of one month to 48 months, some of which include options to extend the leases for up to five years. The Company, in determining the present value of lease payments, utilizes either the rate implicit in the lease if that rate is readily determinable or the Company’s incremental secured borrowing rate commensurate with the term of the underlying lease.

Net cash provided by operating activities was $28.2 million in 2022, as compared to $38.0 million in 2021, and $63.4 million in 2020. Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2022 were net premiums collected of $278.9 million and investment income collected of $33.6 million. These amounts were offset in-part by claim payments of $206.3 million, $64.6 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $7.8 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $3.4 million.

Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2021 were net premiums collected of $290.2 million and investment income collected of $35.5 million. These amounts were offset in-part by claim payments of $189.6 million, $74.2 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $18.2 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $3.9 million.

Major components of cash provided by operating activities in 2020 were net premiums collected of $294.4 million, investment income collected of $38.0 million, and a $7.9 million decrease in amounts held by others. These amounts were offset in-part by claim payments of $179.1 million, $69.4 million of operating expenditures, federal taxes paid of $20.6 million, and dividends to policyholders paid of $4.9 million.

Net cash provided by investing activities was $75.4 million in 2022, as compared to net cash provided by investing activities of $71.0 million in 2021 and net cash provided by investing activities of $43.4 million in 2020. In 2022, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $293.0 million, offset by investment purchases of $215.5 million.

In 2021, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $343.4 million, offset by investment purchases of $271.2 million.

In 2020, major components of net cash provided by investing activities included proceeds from sales and maturities of investments of $365.2 million, offset by investment purchases of $320.9 million.

Net cash used in financing activities was $112.9 million in 2022, as compared to $100.0 million in 2021 and $88.8 million in 2020. Major components of cash used in financing activities in 2022 included cash used for dividends paid to shareholders of $100.4 million and purchases of treasury stock of $12.4 million.

Major components of cash used in financing activities in 2021 and 2020 included cash used for dividends paid to shareholders of $99.9 million and $88.8 million, respectively.

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In December 2022, the Company renewed a line of credit agreement with Frost Bank for borrowings up to a maximum of $20.0 million. Under the agreement, advances may be made either in the form of loans or letters of credit. Borrowings under the agreement accrue at interest rates based upon prime rate or one-month term SOFR rate and are unsecured. At December 31, 2022, there were no outstanding borrowings. Unless renewed, the agreement will expire in December 2023.

The Board of Directors initially authorized the Company’s share repurchase program in February 2010. In October 2016, the Board reauthorized this program with a limit of $25.0 million with no expiration date. As of December 31, 2022, we had repurchased a total of 1,522,699 shares of our outstanding common stock for $34.8 million. The Company had $12.6 million available for future purchases at December 31, 2022 under this program. There were 264,449 shares repurchased in 2022. There were no share repurchases in 2021 or 2020. The purchases may be effected from time to time depending upon market conditions and subject to applicable regulatory considerations. It is anticipated that future purchases will be funded from available capital.

AMERISAFE is a holding company that transacts business through its operating subsidiaries, including AIIC, SOCI and AIICTX. AMERISAFE’s primary assets are the capital stock of these insurance subsidiaries. The ability of AMERISAFE to fund its operations depends upon the surplus and earnings of its subsidiaries and their ability to pay dividends to AMERISAFE. Payment of dividends by our insurance subsidiaries is restricted by state insurance laws, including laws establishing minimum solvency and liquidity thresholds. Based upon the prescribed calculation, the insurance subsidiaries could pay to AMERISAFE dividends of up to $56.0 million in 2023 without seeking regulatory approval. See “Business—Regulation—Dividend Limitations” in Item 1 of this report.

The Company paid regular quarterly cash dividends of $0.31, $0.29, $0.27 per share in 2022, 2021 and 2020, respectively. In addition, the Company paid extraordinary cash dividends of $4.00 per share in both 2022 and 2021 and $3.50 per share in 2020.

On February 17, 2023, the Company declared a regular quarterly cash dividend of $0.34 per share payable on March 24, 2023 to shareholders of record as of March 10, 2023. The Board intends to continue to consider the payment of a regular cash dividend each calendar quarter. On an annualized basis, the cash dividend is expected to be $1.36 per share in 2023.

Investment Portfolio

The principal objectives of our investment portfolio are to preserve capital and surplus and to maintain appropriate liquidity for corporate requirements. Additional objectives are to support our A.M. Best rating of “A” (Excellent) and to maximize after-tax income and total return. We presently expect to maintain sufficient liquidity from funds generated by operations to meet our anticipated insurance obligations and operating and capital expenditure needs. Excess funds from operations will be invested in accordance with our investment policy and statutory requirements.

We allocate our portfolio into four categories: cash and cash equivalents, short-term investments, fixed maturity securities and equity securities. Cash and cash equivalents include cash on deposit, money market funds and municipal securities, corporate securities and certificates of deposit with a maturity date, at the time of purchase, of 90 days or less. Short-term investments include municipal securities, corporate securities and certificates of deposit with an original maturity greater than 90 days but less than one year. Our fixed maturity securities include obligations of the U.S. Treasury or U.S. agencies, obligations of states and their subdivisions, U.S. Dollar-denominated obligations of the U.S. or Canadian corporations, U.S. agency mortgage-backed securities, commercial mortgage-backed securities and asset-backed securities.

Under Nebraska and Texas law, as applicable, each of AIIC, SOCI and AIICTX is required to invest only in securities that are either interest-bearing, interest-accruing or eligible for dividends, and must limit its investment in the securities of any single issuer, other than direct obligations of the United States, to five percent of the insurance company’s assets. As of December 31, 2022, we were in compliance with these requirements.

We employ diversification policies and balance investment credit risk and related underwriting risks to minimize our total potential exposure to any one business sector or security.

As of December 31, 2022, our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, totaled $950.5 million, a decrease of 12.3% from December 31, 2021. The majority of our fixed maturity securities are classified as held-to-maturity, as defined by FASB ASC Topic 320, Investments-Debt and Equity Securities. As such, the reported book value of those securities is equal to their amortized cost net of allowance for credit losses and does not fluctuate based on changing interest rates. The remainder of our fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale and reported at fair market value, less an allowance for credit losses, if any. Investments in equity securities are reported at fair market value.

We follow FASB ASC Topic 820, Fair Value Measurements and Disclosures, which defines fair value, establishes a fair value hierarchy and requires an entity to maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs when

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measuring fair value. As disclosed in Note 18 of the financial statements, our securities available-for-sale are classified using Level 1, 2 and 3 inputs. We did not elect the fair value option prescribed under FASB ASC Topic 825, Financial Instruments, for any financial assets in 2021 or 2022.

The composition of our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, as of December 31, 2022 is shown in the following table.

The following table summarizes the gross unrealized losses and fair value of fixed income securities by the length of time that individual securities have been in a continuous unrealized loss position.

The pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 2.7% and 2.3% per annum during the twelve months ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

Item 7. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations.

The financial and business analysis below provides information which the Company believes is relevant to an assessment and understanding of its consolidated financial position, results of operations and cash flows.  The following discussion of our financial condition and results of operations should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and the notes thereto included in Item 8 of this report. This discussion includes forward-looking statements that are subject to risks, uncertainties and other factors described in Item 1A of this report. These factors could cause our actual results in 2022 and beyond to differ materially from those expressed in, or implied by, those forward-looking statements.

Overview

AMERISAFE is a holding company that markets and underwrites workers’ compensation insurance through its insurance subsidiaries. Workers’ compensation insurance covers statutorily prescribed benefits that employers are obligated to provide to their employees who are injured in the course and scope of their employment. Our business strategy is focused on providing this coverage to small to mid-sized employers engaged in hazardous industries, principally construction, trucking, logging and lumber, agriculture, manufacturing, telecommunications, and maritime. Employers engaged in hazardous industries pay substantially higher than average rates for workers’ compensation insurance compared to employers in other industries, as measured per payroll dollar. The higher premium rates are due to the nature of the work performed and the inherent workplace danger of our target employers. Hazardous industry employers also tend to have less frequent but more severe claims as compared to employers in other industries due to the nature of their businesses. We provide proactive safety reviews of employers’ workplaces. These safety reviews are a vital component of our underwriting process and also promote safer workplaces. We utilize intensive claims management practices that we believe permit us to reduce the overall cost of our claims. In addition, our audit services ensure that our policyholders pay the appropriate premiums required under the terms of their policies and enable us to monitor payroll patterns that cause underwriting, safety or fraud concerns. We believe that the higher premiums typically paid by our policyholders, together with our disciplined underwriting and safety, claims and audit services, provide us with the opportunity to earn attractive returns for our shareholders.

We actively market our insurance in 27 states through independent agencies, as well as through our wholly owned insurance agency subsidiary. We are also licensed in an additional 20 states, the District of Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

Two of the key financial measures that we use to evaluate our performance are return on average equity and growth in book value per share adjusted for dividends paid to shareholders. We calculate return on average equity by dividing annual net income by the average of annual shareholders’ equity. Our return on average equity was 15.7% in 2021, 19.9% in 2020 and 22.1% in 2019. We calculate book value per share by dividing ending shareholders’ equity by the number of common shares outstanding. Our book value per share was $20.62 at December 31, 2021, $22.70 at December 31, 2020 and $22.29 at December 31, 2019.   We paid cash dividends of $5.16 per share in 2021, $4.58 per share in 2020 and $4.50 per share in 2019.

Investment income is an important element of our net income. Because the period of time between our receipt of premiums and the ultimate settlement of claims is often several years or longer, we are able to invest cash from premiums for significant periods of time. As a result, we are able to generate more investment income from our premiums as compared to insurance companies that operate in other lines of business that pay claims more quickly. At December 31, 2021, our investment portfolio, including cash and cash equivalents, was $1.1 billion and produced net investment income of $25.4 million in 2021, $29.4 million in 2020 and $32.5 million in 2019.

The use of reinsurance is an important component of our business strategy. We purchase reinsurance to reduce our net liability on individual risks and to protect against catastrophic losses.  Our reinsurance program for 2022 includes 14 reinsurers that provide coverage to us in excess of a certain specified loss amount, or retention level. Our 2022 reinsurance program provides us with reinsurance coverage for each loss occurrence up to $70.0 million, subject to applicable limitations, deductibles, retentions and aggregate limits. However, for any loss occurrence involving only one claimant, our reinsurance coverage is limited to $10.0 million, subject to applicable deductibles, retentions and aggregate limits.  Losses in the layer between $2.0 million and $10.0 million are ceded to a multi-year reinsurance treaty with an aggregate annual deductible of 3% of subject earned premium and an aggregate limit of coverage of 12% of subject earned premium for 2022. As losses are incurred and recorded, we record amounts recoverable from reinsurers for the portion of the losses ceded to our reinsurers.

Our most significant balance sheet liability is our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses. We record reserves for estimated losses under insurance policies that we write and for loss adjustment expenses related to the investigation and settlement of claims. Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses represent the estimated cost of all reported and unreported loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and unpaid at any given point in time based on known facts and circumstances. Reserves are based on estimates of the most likely ultimate cost of individual claims. These estimates are inherently uncertain. In addition, there are no policy limits on the liability for workers’ compensation claims as there are for other forms of insurance. Therefore, estimating reserves for workers’

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compensation claims may be more uncertain than estimating reserves for other types of insurance claims with shorter or more definite periods between occurrence of the claim and final determination of the loss and with policy limits on liability for claim amounts.

Our focus on providing workers’ compensation insurance to employers engaged in hazardous industries results in our receiving relatively fewer but more severe claims than many other workers’ compensation insurance companies. Severe claims, which we define as claims having an estimated ultimate cost of more than $1.0 million, usually have a material effect on each accident year’s loss reserves (and our reported results of operations) as a result of both the number of severe claims reported in any year and the timing of claims in the year. As a result of our focus on higher severity, lower frequency business, our reserve for loss and loss adjustment expenses may have greater volatility than other workers’ compensation insurance companies.

For example, for the five-year period ended December 31, 2021 we had recorded 88 severe claims, or an average of 18 severe claims per year for accident years 2017 through 2021. The number of severe claims in any one accident year in this five-year period ranged from a low of 15 in 2017 and 2018 to a high of 20 in 2020. The average reported case severity for these claims ranged from $2.2 million for the 2018 accident year to $3.2 million for the 2019 accident year. For the five accident years, the case incurred for these severe claims accounted for an average of 15.3 percentage points of our overall loss and loss adjustment expense, or LAE, ratio, measured at December 31, 2021.  Due to a catastrophic claim reported in the fourth quarter of 2021, we increased the current accident year loss ratio. The Company’s catastrophic reinsurance program covers amounts up to $10 million per individual, but amounts greater than $10 million per individual are retained by the Company.  As a result of this catastrophic claim, AMERISAFE has increased its net estimate after reinsurance for this loss by $24 million.

Further, the ultimate cost of severe claims is more difficult to estimate, principally due to uncertainties as to medical treatment and outcome and the length and degree of disability. Because of these uncertainties, the estimate of the ultimate cost of severe claims can vary significantly as more information becomes available. As a result, at year end, the case reserve for a severe claim reported early in the year may be more accurate than the case reserve established for a severe claim reported late in the year.

A key assumption used by management in establishing loss reserves is that average per claim case incurred loss and loss adjustment expenses will increase year over year. We believe this increase primarily reflects medical and wage inflation and utilization. However, changes in per average claim case incurred loss and loss adjustment expenses can also be affected by frequency of severe claims in the applicable accident years.

As more fully described in “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report, the estimate for loss and loss adjustment expenses is established based upon management’s analysis of historical data, and factors and trends derived from that data, including claims reported, average claim amount incurred, case development, duration, severity and payment patterns, as well as subjective assumptions. This analysis includes reviews of case reserves for individual open severe claims in the current and prior years. Management reviews the outcomes from actuarial analyses to confirm the reasonableness of its reserve estimate.

Substantial judgment is required to determine the relevance of our historical experience and industry information under current facts and circumstances. The interpretation of this historical and industry data can be impacted by external forces, principally frequency and severity of unreported claims, length of time to achieve ultimate settlement of claims, utilization, inflation in medical costs and wages, insurance policy coverage interpretations, jury determinations and legislative changes. Accordingly, our reserves may prove to be inadequate to cover our actual losses. If we change our estimates, these changes would be reflected in our results of operations during the period in which the changes occurred, with increases in our reserves resulting in decreases in our earnings. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Our gross reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses at December 31, 2021, 2020 and 2019 were $745.3 million, $760.6 million and $772.9 million, respectively. As a percentage of gross reserves at year end, IBNR represented 16.1% in 2021, 16.8% in 2020 and 17.6% in 2019.

In 2021, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $61.9 million. In 2020, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $63.5 million. In 2019, we decreased our estimates for prior year loss reserves by $65.0 million.

The workers’ compensation insurance industry is cyclical in nature and influenced by many factors, including price competition, medical cost increases, natural and man-made disasters, changes in interest rates, changes in state laws and regulations, and general economic conditions. A hard market in our industry is characterized by decreased competition that results in higher premium rates, more restrictive policy coverage terms, and lower commissions paid to agencies. In contrast, a soft market is characterized by increased competition that results in lower premium rates, expanded policy coverage terms, and higher commissions paid to agencies. Our strategy is to focus on maintaining underwriting profitability throughout the cycle.

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For additional information regarding our loss reserves and the analyses and methodologies used by management to establish these reserves, see the information under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Principal Revenue and Expense Items

Our revenues consist primarily of the following:

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned is the earned portion of our net premiums written. Net premiums written is equal to gross premiums written less premiums ceded to reinsurers. Gross premiums written includes the estimated annual premiums from each insurance policy we write in our voluntary and assigned risk businesses during a reporting period based on the policy effective date or the date the policy is bound, whichever is later.

Premiums are earned on a daily pro rata basis over the term of the policy. At the end of each reporting period, premiums written that are not earned are classified as unearned premiums and are earned in subsequent periods over the remaining term of the policy. Our insurance policies typically have a term of one year. Thus, for a one-year policy written on July 1, 2021 for an employer with constant payroll during the term of the policy, we would earn half of the premiums in 2021 and the other half in 2022. On a monthly basis, we also recognize net premiums earned from mandatory pooling arrangements.

We estimate the annual premiums to be paid by our policyholders when we issue the policies and record those amounts on our balance sheet as premiums receivable. We conduct premium audits on all of our voluntary business policyholders annually, upon the expiration of each policy, including when the policy is renewed. The purpose of these audits is to verify that policyholders have accurately reported their payroll expenses and employee job classifications, and therefore have paid us the premium required under the terms of the policies. The difference between the estimated premium and the ultimate premium is referred to as “earned but unbilled” premium, or EBUB premium. EBUB premium is subject to significant variability and can either increase or decrease earned premium based upon several factors, including changes in premium growth, industry mix and economic conditions. Due to the timing of audits and other adjustments, the ultimate premium earned is generally not determined for several months after the expiration of the policy.

We review the estimate of EBUB premiums on a quarterly basis using historical data and applying various assumptions based on the current market and economic conditions, and we record an adjustment to premium, related losses, and expenses as warranted.

Net Investment Income and Net Realized Gains and Losses on Investments. We invest our statutory surplus funds and the funds supporting our insurance liabilities in fixed maturity securities, equity securities and alternative investments. In addition, a portion of these funds are held in cash and cash equivalents to pay current claims. Our net investment income includes interest and dividends earned on our invested assets and amortization of premiums and discounts on our fixed maturity securities. We assess the performance of our investment portfolio using a standard tax equivalent yield metric. Investment income that is tax-exempt is increased by our marginal federal tax rate to express yield on tax-exempt securities on the same basis as taxable securities. Net realized gains and losses on our investments are reported separately from our net investment income. Net realized gains occur when our investment securities are sold for more than their cost or amortized cost, as applicable. Net realized losses occur when our investment securities are sold for less than their cost or amortized cost, as applicable. We classify the majority of our fixed maturity securities as held-to-maturity. The remainder of our fixed maturity securities are classified as available-for-sale. Net unrealized gains or losses on our securities classified as available-for-sale are reported separately within accumulated other comprehensive income on our balance sheet.  Changes in net unrealized gains or losses on our equity securities are recognized in net income.

Fee and Other Income. We recognize commission income earned on policies issued by other carriers that are sold by our wholly owned insurance agency subsidiary as the related services are performed. We also recognize a small portion of interest income from mandatory pooling arrangements in which we participate.

Our expenses consist primarily of the following:

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred represents our largest expense item and, for any given reporting period, includes estimates of future claim payments, changes in those estimates from prior reporting periods and costs associated with investigating, defending, and administering claims. These expenses fluctuate based on the amount and types of risks we insure. We record loss and loss adjustment expenses related to estimates of future claim payments based on case-by-case valuations and statistical analyses. We seek to establish all reserves at the most likely ultimate exposure based on our historical claims experience. It is typical for our more serious claims to take several years to settle and we revise our estimates as we receive additional information about the condition of the injured employees. Our ability to estimate loss and loss adjustment expenses accurately at the time of pricing our insurance policies is a critical factor in our profitability. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

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Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs. Underwriting and certain other operating costs are those expenses that we incur to underwrite and maintain the insurance policies we issue. These expenses include state and local premium taxes and fees and other operating costs, offset by commissions we receive from reinsurers under our reinsurance treaty programs. We pay state and local taxes, licenses and fees, assessments, and contributions to state workers’ compensation security funds based on premiums. In addition, other operating costs include general and administrative expenses, excluding commissions and salaries and benefits, incurred at both the insurance company and corporate level.

Commissions. We pay commissions to our subsidiary insurance agency and to the independent agencies that sell our insurance based on premiums collected from policyholders.

Salaries and Benefits. We pay salaries and provide benefits to our employees.

Policyholder Dividends. In limited circumstances, we pay dividends to policyholders in particular states as an underwriting incentive.

Income Tax Expense. We incur federal, state, and local income tax expense.

Critical Accounting Policies and Estimates

Understanding our accounting policies is key to understanding our financial statements. Management considers some of these policies to be very important to the presentation of our financial results because they require us to make significant estimates and assumptions. These estimates and assumptions affect the reported amounts of our assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses and related disclosures. Some of the estimates result from judgments that can be subjective and complex and, consequently, actual results in future periods might differ from these estimates.

Management believes that the most critical accounting policies relate to the reporting of reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses, including losses that have occurred but have not been reported prior to the reporting date, amounts recoverable from reinsurers, premiums receivable, assessments, deferred policy acquisition costs, deferred income taxes, credit losses on investment securities and share-based compensation.

The following is a description of our critical accounting policies.

Reserves for Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses. We record reserves for estimated losses under insurance policies that we write and for loss adjustment expenses, which include defense and cost containment, or DCC, and adjusting and other, or AO expenses, related to the investigation and settlement of policy claims. Our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses represent the estimated cost of all reported and unreported loss and loss adjustment expenses incurred and unpaid at any given point in time based on known facts and circumstances.

Our reserves for loss and DCC expenses are estimated using case-by-case valuations based on our estimate of the most likely outcome of the claim at that time. In addition to these case reserves, we establish reserves on an aggregate basis that have been incurred but not reported, or IBNR. Our IBNR reserves are also intended to provide for aggregate changes in case incurred amounts as well as for recently reported claims which an initial case reserve has not been established. The third component of our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses is our AO reserve. Our AO reserve is established for those future claims administration costs that cannot be allocated directly to individual claims. The final component of our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses is the reserve for mandatory pooling arrangements.

In establishing our reserves, we review the results of analyses using actuarial methods that utilize historical loss data from our more than 36 years of underwriting workers’ compensation insurance. The actuarial analysis of our historical data provides the factors we use in estimating our loss reserves. These factors are primarily measures over time of the number of claims paid and reported, average paid and incurred claim amounts, claim closure rates and claim payment patterns. In evaluating the results of our analyses, management also uses substantial judgment in considering other factors that are not considered in these actuarial analyses, including changes in business mix, claims management, regulatory issues, medical trends, employment and wage patterns, insurance policy coverage interpretations, judicial determinations and other subjective factors. Due to the inherent uncertainty associated with these estimates, and the cost of incurred but unreported claims, our actual liabilities may vary significantly from our original estimates.

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On a quarterly basis, we review our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses to determine whether adjustments are required. Any resulting adjustments are included in the results for the current period. In establishing our reserves, we do not use loss discounting, which would involve recognizing the time value of money and offsetting estimates of future payments by future expected investment income. Additional information regarding our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses and the actuarial methods and other factors used in establishing these reserves can be found under the caption “Business—Loss Reserves” in Item 1 of this report.

Amounts Recoverable from Reinsurers. Amounts recoverable from reinsurers represent the portion of our paid and unpaid loss and loss adjustment expenses that are assumed by reinsurers and related commissions due from reinsurers. These amounts are separately reported on our balance sheet as assets net of an allowance for credit losses and do not reduce our reserves for loss and loss adjustment expenses because reinsurance does not relieve us of liability to our policyholders. We are required to pay claims even if a reinsurer fails to pay us under the terms of a reinsurance contract. We calculate amounts recoverable from reinsurers based on our estimates of the underlying loss and loss adjustment expenses, as well as the terms and conditions of our reinsurance contracts, which could be subject to interpretation. In addition, we bear credit risk with respect to our reinsurers, which can be significant because some of the unpaid loss and loss adjustment expenses for which we have reinsurance coverage remain outstanding for extended periods of time.

Premiums Receivable. Premiums receivable represents premium-related balances due from our policyholders based on annual premiums for policies written, including surcharges and deposits and adjustments for premium audits, endorsements, cancellations, cash transactions and charge offs. The balance is shown net of an allowance for credit losses and includes an estimate for EBUB. The EBUB estimate is subject to significant variability and can either increase or decrease premiums receivable and earned premiums based upon several factors, including changes in premium growth, industry mix and economic conditions. EBUB assumptions include historical development factors, current economic outlook and current trends in particular sectors of our business.

Assessments. We are subject to various assessments and premium surcharges related to our insurance activities, including assessments and premium surcharges for state guaranty funds and second injury funds. Our accrual is based on historical assessments as well as updated assessment rates.  Assessments based on premiums are recorded as an expense as premiums are earned and generally paid one year after the calendar year in which the policies are written. Assessments based on losses are recorded as an expense as losses are incurred and are generally paid within one year of the calendar year in which the claims are paid by us. State guaranty fund assessments are used by state insurance oversight agencies to pay claims of policyholders of impaired, insolvent or failed insurance companies and the operating expenses of those agencies. Second injury funds are used by states to reimburse insurers and employers for claims paid to injured employees for aggravation of prior conditions or injuries. In some states, these assessments and premium surcharges may be partially recovered through a reduction in future premium taxes.

Deferred Policy Acquisition Costs. We defer commission expenses, premium taxes and certain marketing, sales, underwriting and safety costs that vary with and primarily relate to the successful acquisition of insurance policies. These acquisition costs are capitalized and charged to expense ratably as premiums are earned. In calculating deferred policy acquisition costs, these costs are limited to their estimated realizable value, which gives effect to the premiums to be earned, anticipated losses and settlement expenses and certain other costs we expect to incur as the premiums are earned, less related net investment income. Judgments as to the ultimate recoverability of these deferred policy acquisition costs are highly dependent upon estimated future profitability of unearned premiums. If the unearned premiums were less than our expected claims and expenses after considering investment income, we would reduce the deferred costs.

Deferred Income Taxes. We use the liability method of accounting for income taxes. Under this method, deferred income tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributed to differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities resulting from a tax rate change impacts our net income or loss in the reporting period that includes the enactment date of the tax rate change.

In assessing whether our deferred tax assets will be realized, management considers whether it is more likely than not that we will generate future taxable income during the periods in which those temporary differences become deductible. Management considers the scheduled reversal of deferred tax liabilities, tax planning strategies and projected future taxable income in making this assessment. If necessary, we establish a valuation allowance to reduce the deferred tax assets to the amounts that are more likely than not to be realized.

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Credit Losses on Investment Securities. Investment securities are recorded on the balance sheet as assets net of an allowance for credit losses.  For held-to-maturity fixed income securities, the allowance is based on historical default and recovery rates as published by Moody’s analytics for corporate bonds, municipal bonds, and other types of fixed income securities.  For available-for-sale fixed income securities, a credit allowance is established if the expected discounted future cash flows no longer exceed the book value of the security.   In determining the amount of the credit loss to establish, the Company considers the following factors:

Share-Based Compensation. In accordance with Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) Topic 718, Compensation-Stock Compensation, we recognize compensation costs for restricted stock, performance-based stock and stock option awards over the applicable vesting periods.

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Results of Operations

The table below summarizes certain operating results and key measures we use in monitoring and evaluating our operations.

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Overview of Operating Results

Year Ended December 31, 2021 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2020

Gross Premiums Written. Gross premiums written for 2021 were $278.3 million, compared to $303.1 million for 2020, a decrease of 8.2%. The decrease was attributable to a $18.0 million decrease in annual premiums on voluntary policies written during the period primarily driven by continued declines in state approved loss costs.  Premiums resulting from payroll audits and related premium adjustments for policies written in previous periods decreased by $7.7 million.  The decreases were offset by a $0.8 million increase in assumed premium from mandatory pooling arrangements. Payroll audits completed this year included periods of activity impacted by COVID-19.  Related premium adjustments in 2021 include a $1.6 million increase in “earned but unbilled,” or EBUB, premium.

Net Premiums Written. Net premiums written for 2021 were $267.8 million, compared to $292.8 million for 2020, a decrease of 8.5%. The decrease was primarily attributable to the decrease in gross premiums written. As a percentage of gross premiums earned, ceded premiums were 3.7% for 2021 compared to 3.3% for 2020.  The increase in ceded premiums as a percentage of gross premiums earned reflects additional ceded premium of $0.6 million resulting from excess ceded losses.  For additional information, see Item 1, “Business—Reinsurance.”

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned for 2021 were $276.0 million, compared to $304.4 million for 2020, a decrease of 9.3%.  The decrease was attributable to the decrease in net premiums written during the period.

Net Investment Income. Net investment income in 2021 was $25.4 million, a decrease of 13.4% from the $29.4 million reported in 2020.  The decrease was due to lower interest rates on fixed income securities in 2021 compared with 2020.  The pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 2.3% per annum for 2021 versus 2.5% per annum for 2020. The tax-equivalent yield on our investment portfolio was 2.7% per annum for 2021, compared to 2.9% per annum for 2020. The tax-equivalent yield is calculated using the effective interest rate and the appropriate marginal tax rate.  Average invested assets, including cash and cash equivalents, decreased 3.3%, from an average of $1,191.7 million for 2020 to an average of $1,151.8 million for 2021.

Net Realized Gains (Losses) on Investments. Net realized gains on investments in 2021 totaled $1.7 million, compared to $1.1 million in 2020.  In 2021, net realized gains of $1.7 million resulted from the sale of fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale.  In 2020, net realized gains of $1.0 million resulted from the sale of fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale and $0.1 million from redemptions of fixed maturity securities.

Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities.  Net unrealized gains on equity securities in 2021 were $12.3 million compared to net unrealized gains of $4.2 million in 2020 due to strong appreciation of our common stock investments in 2021.

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and LAE incurred totaled $160.8 million for 2021, compared to $157.2 million for 2020, an increase of $3.6 million, or 2.3%. The current accident year losses and LAE incurred were $222.7 million, or 80.7% of net premiums earned, compared to $220.7 million, or 72.5% of net premiums earned for 2020.  We recorded favorable prior accident year development of $61.9 million in 2021, compared to $63.5 million in 2020. This is discussed in more detail below in “Prior Year Development.” Our net loss ratio was 58.3% for 2021 and 51.6% for 2020.  The increase in the current accident year and net loss ratios resulted from a catastrophic claim reported in the fourth quarter.

Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs, Commissions and Salaries and Benefits. Underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries and benefits for 2021 were $72.1 million, compared to $71.9 million for 2020, an increase of $0.1 million, or 0.2%. This increase was primarily due to a $2.7 million increase in insurance related assessments, a $1.7 million increase in accounts receivable write-offs mostly on assumed premium from mandatory pooling arrangements, and a $0.7 million increase in professional fees.  The increase in insurance related assessments resulted from a benefit of $5.7 million recorded in the prior year due to the early termination of an assessment related to a state multiple injury fund.  The increases above were partially

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offset by a decrease of $2.0 million in compensation expense, a decrease of $1.9 million in commission expense, an increase of $1.0 million in profit sharing reinsurance commission, and a decrease of 0.7 million in premium taxes. Our underwriting expense ratio increased to 26.1% in 2021 from 23.6% in 2020.

Income tax expense. Income tax expense for 2021 was $13.7 million, compared to $20.3 million for 2020. The effective tax rate also decreased to 17.2% for 2021, compared to 19.0% for 2020. This decrease in the effective tax rate is due to a higher proportion of tax-exempt income to underwriting income in 2021 relative to 2020 and a reduction in a valuation allowance on deferred state tax assets.

Year Ended December 31, 2020 Compared to Year Ended December 31, 2019

Gross Premiums Written. Gross premiums written for 2020 were $303.1 million, compared to $333.5 million for 2019, a decrease of 9.1%. The decrease was attributable to a $23.6 million decrease in annual premiums on voluntary policies written during the period, a $5.9 million decrease in premiums resulting from payroll audits and related premium adjustments for policies written in previous periods, and a $0.9 million decrease in annual premiums on assigned risk policies written during the period.  Related premium adjustments in 2020 include a $2.2 million decrease in “earned but unbilled,” or EBUB, premium.

Net Premiums Written. Net premiums written for 2020 were $292.8 million, compared to $324.5 million for 2019, a decrease of 9.8%. The decrease was primarily attributable to the decrease in gross premiums written. As a percentage of gross premiums earned, ceded premiums were 3.3% for 2020 compared to 2.6% for 2019.  The increase in ceded premiums as a percentage of gross premiums earned is due to increased pricing for our 2020 reinsurance program.  For additional information, see Item 1, “Business—Reinsurance.”

Net Premiums Earned. Net premiums earned for 2020 were $304.4 million, compared to $332.9 million for 2019, a decrease of 8.5%.  The decrease was attributable to the decrease in net premiums written during the period.

Net Investment Income. Net investment income in 2020 was $29.4 million, a decrease of 9.6% from the $32.5 million reported in 2019.  The decrease was due to lower interest rates on fixed income securities in 2020 compared with 2019.  The pre-tax investment yield on our investment portfolio was 2.5% per annum for 2020 versus 2.8% per annum for 2019. The tax-equivalent yield on our investment portfolio was 2.9% per annum for 2020, compared to 3.1% per annum for 2019. The tax-equivalent yield is calculated using the effective interest rate and the appropriate marginal tax rate.  Average invested assets, including cash and cash equivalents, decreased 0.7%, from an average of $1,200.6 million for 2019 to an average of $1,191.7 million for 2020.

Net Realized Gains (Losses) on Investments. Net realized gains on investments in 2020 totaled $1.1 million, compared to losses of $0.1 million in 2019.  In 2020, net realized gains of $1.0 million resulted from the sale of fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale and $0.1 million from redemptions of fixed maturity securities.  In 2019, net realized losses of $0.2 million resulted from redemptions of fixed maturity securities offset by $0.1 million of realized gains on the sale of fixed maturity securities classified as available-for-sale.

Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities.  Net unrealized gains on equity securities in 2020 were $4.2 million compared to net unrealized gains of $4.8 million in 2019.

Loss and Loss Adjustment Expenses Incurred. Loss and LAE incurred totaled $157.2 million for 2020, compared to $176.3 million for 2019, a decrease of $19.1 million, or 10.8%. The current accident year losses and LAE incurred were $220.7 million, or 72.5%of net premiums earned, compared to $241.3 million, or 72.5% of net premiums earned for 2019. We recorded favorable prior accident year development of $63.5 million in 2020, compared to $65.0 million in 2019. This is discussed in more detail below in “Prior Year Development.” Our net loss ratio was 51.6%for 2020 and 53.0% for 2019.

Underwriting and Certain Other Operating Costs, Commissions and Salaries and Benefits. Underwriting and certain other operating costs, commissions and salaries and benefits for 2020 were $71.9 million, compared to $74.4 million for 2019, a decrease of $2.4 million, or 3.3%. This decrease was primarily due to a $1.9 million decrease in commission expense, a $1.1 million decrease in travel and travel related items due to the pandemic, and a $0.7 million decrease in insurance related assessments.  The decrease in insurance related assessments included a benefit of $5.7 million from the elimination of a state assessment for a second injury trust fund in 2020 compared to a benefit of $3.5 million from the elimination of a state assessment for a multiple injury fund in 2019.  The decreases above were partially offset by an increase of $0.8 million in compensation expense due to changes in variable share price based incentive compensation and an increase of $0.7 million in accounts receivable write-offs. Our underwriting expense ratio increased to 23.6% in 2020 from 22.3% in 2019.

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Income Tax Expense. Income tax expense for 2020 was $20.3 million, compared to $22.8 million for 2019. The effective tax rate also decreased to 19.0% for 2020, compared to 19.8% for 2019. This decrease in the effective tax rate is due to a higher proportion of tax-exempt income to underwriting income in 2020 relative to 2019.

Prior Year Development

The Company recorded favorable prior accident year loss and loss adjustment expense development of $61.9 million in calendar year 2021, $63.5 million in calendar year 2020 and $65.0 million in calendar year 2019. The table below sets forth the favorable development for accident years 2016 through 2020 and, collectively, all accident years prior to 2016.

The table below sets forth the number of open claims as of December 31, 2021, 2020 and 2019, and the numbers of claims reported and closed during the years then ended.