# Installed Building Products, Inc. (IBP) FY 2022 MD&A

Verbatim Item 7 Management's Discussion and Analysis from Installed Building Products, Inc.'s 10-K for fiscal year 2022.

SEC filing source: https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1580905/000158090523000013/ibp-20221231.htm
Accession: 0001580905-23-000013
Filing date: 2023-02-22
Report date: 2022-12-31
Extracted structurally from real Item 7 body heading to real Item 7A/8 boundary. Published MD&A gate trimmed front/tail over-capture.
Confidence: high

Company profile: /company/IBP/
All MD&A years: /company/IBP/mda/
Previous year: /company/IBP/mda/fy2021/ (FY 2021)
Next year: /company/IBP/mda/fy2023/ (FY 2023)

Item 7.    Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

You should read the following in conjunction with the consolidated financial statements and related notes thereto included in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplemental Data, of Part II of this Form 10-K. This discussion contains forward-looking statements reflecting current expectations that involve risks and uncertainties. Actual results and the timing of events may differ materially from those contained in these forward-looking statements due to a number of factors, including those discussed in the section captioned “Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this Form 10-K.

OVERVIEW

We are one of the nation’s largest insulation installers for the residential new construction market and are also a diversified installer of complementary building products, including waterproofing, fire-stopping and fireproofing, garage doors, rain gutters, window blinds, shower doors, closet shelving, mirrors and other products throughout the United States. We offer our portfolio of services for new and existing single-family and multi-family residential and commercial building projects in all 48 continental states and the District of Columbia from our national network of over 230 branch locations. 94% of our net revenue comes from the service-based installation of these products across all of our end markets and forms our Installation operating segment and single reportable segment. Additionally, we manufacture and distribute certain building products and materials to installers and distributors involved with various types of construction projects and these two operations form our Manufacturing operating segment and our Distribution operating segment, respectively. We believe our business is well positioned to continue to profitably grow due to our strong balance sheet, liquidity and our continuing acquisition strategy.

A large portion of our net revenue comes from the U.S. residential new construction market, which depends upon a number of economic factors, including demographic trends, interest rates, inflation, consumer confidence, employment rates, housing inventory levels, foreclosure rates, the health of the economy and the availability and affordability of mortgage financing. Our strategic acquisitions over the last several years contributed meaningfully to our 35.6% increase in net revenue during the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to 2021.

We have omitted discussion of 2020 results in the sections that follow where it would be redundant to the discussion previously included in Part II, Item 7, of Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2021.

2022 Highlights

Net revenues increased 35.6%, or $701.2 million, while gross profit increased 40.4% to $827.8 million during the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to 2021. We also generated approximately $277.9 million of cash from operating activities. The increase in net revenue and gross profit was primarily driven by the contribution of our recent acquisitions, selling price and product mix improvements as evidenced by the 23.0% increase in our price/mix metric and increased sales volume of 5.5% on a same branch basis for our Installation segment. Gross profit grew faster than revenue primarily due to higher selling prices and resulting leverage gained on labor and other costs of sales. These synergies were partially offset by higher fuel costs and higher material costs due to increased Distribution segment sales which generally have higher material costs than our other segments. Supply chain constraints and inflationary pressures also contributed to higher material costs in 2022, particularly for spray foam and several complementary installed products, as some products continue to be difficult to source near volume and pricing levels secured in prior periods. Certain net revenue, end market and industry metrics we use to monitor our operations are discussed in the "Key Measures of Performance" section below.

As of December 31, 2022, we had $229.6 million of cash and cash equivalents and we have not drawn on our revolving line of credit. We amended and extended our revolving line of credit in February 2022, increasing the commitment to $250.0 million from $200.0 million. Additionally, we received $25.5 million from amending the maturity dates on our three interest rate swaps in July 2022. Our liquidity remains strong despite repurchasing $137.6 million of our Company's stock and paying our variable and regular quarterly dividends of $62.7 million during the year ended December 31, 2022.

During the year ended December 31, 2022, we experienced overall sales growth in all of our end markets and we achieved 24.6% year-over-year same branch sales growth, with acquisitions contributing the remaining portion of our total sales growth. Our largest end market, the single-family subset of the residential new construction market, grew revenue 33.5% over the same period in 2021. Our commercial end market experienced sales growth of 15.2% during the year ended December 31, 2022 primarily through acquisitions. We experienced commercial project delays in 2022 due to macroeconomic concerns surrounding the pandemic and general economic uncertainty.

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We continue to diversify our operations through our acquisition strategy and met our goal of acquiring at least $100.0 million in revenue in 2022. Our commitment to the diversification of our product mix included expanding our distribution business as evidenced by our largest acquisition in 2022, Central Aluminum Supply Corporation ("CAS"), a distributor of gutter supplies and accessories.

The homebuilding market is expected to slow in 2023 due to economic concerns, namely higher inflation and interest rates experienced in 2022. While home starts are currently projected to be lower in 2023 than 2022, we believe there are several trends that should drive long-term growth in the housing market, even if there are temporary periods of slowed growth. These long-term trends include an aging housing stock, population growth, demographic changes, household formation growth and the fact that housing starts remained below long-term historic averages for over a decade following the 2008 recession. We expect that our net revenue, gross profit and operating income will benefit from this growth over time although we will be negatively impacted by the slowdown in the homebuilding industry in the near term.

2021 Highlights

Net revenues increased 19.1%, or $315.4 million, while gross profit increased 15.6% to $589.5 million during the year ended December 31, 2021 compared to 2020. We also generated approximately $138.3 million of cash from operating activities. The increase in net revenue and gross profit was primarily driven by the contribution of our recent acquisitions, selling price and product mix improvements as evidenced by the 3.3% increase in our price/mix metric and increased sales volume of 7.9% on a same branch basis for our Installation segment. Gross profit grew slower than revenue primarily due to higher material costs caused by pandemic-related supply chain constraints, higher fuel costs and reduced efficiencies within the large commercial construction market due to challenges from the COVID-19 pandemic. Inflationary pressure contributed to the year-over-year margin compression as materials, particularly spray foam, gutters, and other complementary installed products, continued to be difficult to source near volume and pricing levels secured in prior periods.

As of December 31, 2021, we had $333.5 million of cash and cash equivalents. In December 2021, we modified our debt structure to take advantage of favorable market conditions, entering into a new term loan credit agreement which provided for a seven-year $500 million term loan facility. A portion of the proceeds from the term loan were used to repay, in full, all amounts outstanding under the previous term loan agreement. We had not drawn on our $200.0 million revolving line of credit existing at December 31, 2021. Additionally, we paid our first quarterly dividends as a public company in 2021.

During the year ended December 31, 2021, we experienced overall sales growth in all of our end markets and we achieved 9.7% year-over-year same branch sales growth, with acquisitions contributing the remaining portion of our total sales growth. Our largest end market, the single-family subset of the residential new construction market, grew revenue 22.1% over the same period in 2020 for our Installation segment. Our commercial end market experienced sales growth of 10.8% during the year ended December 31, 2021 primarily through acquisitions, but we experienced project delays due to macroeconomic concerns surrounding the pandemic, resulting in a decline in same branch sales within this market. These fluctuations are shown in further detail in the "Key Measures of Performance" section below, and impacts from COVID-19 are discussed further in the sections that follow.

Key Measures of Performance

We utilize certain net revenue and industry metrics to monitor our operations. At the beginning of 2022, we realigned our operating segments to reflect recent changes in our business as described in Part II, Item 8, "Note 11 - Information on Segments" in this Form 10-K. In conjunction with this realignment, we modified the key metrics we use to monitor company and segment performance. Specifically, we now present total sales growth and same branch growth metrics for our consolidated results, our Installation reportable segment and our Other category consisting of our Distribution and Manufacturing operating segments. In addition, our volume growth and price/mix growth metrics are now only presented for the Installation reportable segment to align with how we monitor our operations. While these changes do not significantly alter the prior period metrics previously disclosed, prior period Manufacturing operating segment growth metrics were reclassified from our Installation segment metrics to the Other category metrics in the table below.

We believe the revenue growth measures shown in the table that follows are important indicators of how our business is performing, however, we may rely on different metrics in the future. We also utilize gross profit percentage as shown in the following section to monitor our most significant variable costs and to evaluate labor efficiency and success at passing increasing costs of materials to customers.

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The following table shows certain key measures of performance we utilize to evaluate our results:

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","","Years ended December 31,"],["","","2022","","2021","","2020"],["Period-over-period Growth"],["Consolidated Sales Growth","","35.6","%","","19.1","%","","9.4","%"],["Consolidated Same Branch Sales Growth (1)","","24.6","%","","9.7","%","","4.5","%"],["Installation (2)"],["Sales Growth (3)","","29.5","%","","18.7","%","","9.6","%"],["Same Branch Sales Growth (1)(3)","","24.5","%","","9.4","%","","4.7","%"],["Single-Family Sales Growth (4)","","33.5","%","","22.1","%","","5.2","%"],["Single-Family Same Branch Sales Growth (1)(4)","","28.9","%","","14.4","%","","0.6","%"],["Multi-Family Sales Growth (5)","","31.8","%","","14.7","%","","37.5","%"],["Multi-Family Same Branch Sales Growth (1)(5)","","31.0","%","","6.7","%","","33.2","%"],["Residential Sales Growth (6)","","33.2","%","","20.9","%","","9.5","%"],["Residential Same Branch Sales Growth (1)(6)","","29.2","%","","13.2","%","","4.9","%"],["Commercial Sales Growth (7)","","15.2","%","","10.8","%","","10.2","%"],["Commercial Same Branch Sales Growth (1)(7)","","6.6","%","","(4.0)","%","","3.4","%"],["Other (2)"],["Sales Growth (8)","","453.8","%","","65.1","%","","(6.3)","%"],["Same Branch Sales Growth (1)(8)","","41.5","%","","44.3","%","","(6.3)","%"],["Same Branch Sales Growth - Installation (2)(9)"],["Volume Growth (1)(10)","","5.5","%","","7.9","%","","1.9","%"],["Price/Mix Growth (1)(11)","","23.0","%","","3.3","%","","2.8","%"],["U.S. Housing Market (12)"],["Total Completions Growth","","3.7","%","","4.2","%","","2.5","%"],["Single-Family Completions Growth","","5.6","%","","6.1","%","","0.9","%"],["Multi-Family Completions Growth","","(1.1)","%","","(0.3)","%","","6.3","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["(1)","Same-branch basis represents period-over-period growth for branch locations owned greater than 12 months as of each financial statement date."],["(2)","Prior period disclosures have been recast to conform to the current period segment presentation."],["(3)","Calculated based on period-over-period growth of all end markets for our Installation segment."],["(4)","Calculated based on period-over-period growth in the single-family subset of the residential new construction end market for our Installation segment."],["(5)","Calculated based on period-over-period growth in the multi-family subset of the residential new construction end market for our Installation segment."],["(6)","Calculated based on period-over-period growth in the residential new construction end market for our Installation segment."],["(7)","Calculated based on period-over-period growth in the total commercial end market. Our commercial end market consists of heavy and light commercial projects."],["(8)","Calculated based on period-over-period growth in our Other category which consists for our Manufacturing and Distribution operating segments. Our distribution businesses were acquired in December, 2021 and April, 2022."],["(9)","The heavy commercial end market, a subset of our total commercial end market, comprises projects that are much larger than our average installation job. The end market is excluded from the volume growth and price/mix growth calculations as to not skew the growth rates given its much larger per-job revenue compared to the average jobs in our remaining end markets."],["(10)","Calculated based on period-over-period change in the number of completed same-branch jobs within our Installation segment for all markets we serve except the heavy commercial end market."],["(11)","Defined as change in the mix of products sold and related pricing changes and calculated as the change in period-over-period average selling price per same-branch jobs within our Installation segment for all markets we serve except the heavy commercial market, multiplied by total current year jobs. The mix of end customer and product would have an impact on the year-over-year price per job."],["(12)","U.S. Census Bureau data, as revised."]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

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Net revenue, cost of sales and gross profit

The components of gross profit for 2022, 2021 and 2020 were as follows (dollars in thousands):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","2022","","Change","","2021","","Change","","2020"],["Net revenue","$","2,669,844","","","35.6","%","","$","1,968,650","","","19.1","%","","$","1,653,225"],["Cost of sales","1,842,060","","","33.6","%","","1,379,131","","","20.6","%","","1,143,251"],["Gross profit","$","827,784","","","40.4","%","","$","589,519","","","15.6","%","","$","509,974"],["Gross profit percentage","31.0","%","","","","29.9","%","","","","30.8","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Net revenue increased during the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to the year ended December 31, 2021 primarily due to increased selling prices and organic growth as shown in the Key Measures of Performance section above. Acquisitions also meaningfully contributed to our 2022 revenue growth, adding $217.1 million of revenue in 2022. Our residential end market grew 33.2% primarily due to selling price increases, higher volume and the continued success of our acquisition strategy. Our commercial end market continued to face challenges associated with project delays due to economic concerns and the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the commercial business improved from its 2021 performance as evidenced by a 6.6% annual growth rate in same branch sales in 2022, showing signs of improvement in the second half of 2022. Our price/mix metric was positively impacted during the year ended December 31, 2022 as we were able to pass along selling price increases to partially offset multiple price increases in material costs.

The remaining overall growth in net revenue for the year December 31, 2022 is attributable to the recent acquisitions of AMD Distribution and Central Aluminum which form our Distribution operating segment. This operating segment, combined with our Manufacturing operating segment, grew from $29.3 million to $162.4 million in net revenue for the year ended December 31, 2022.

As a percentage of net revenue, gross profit increased during the year ended December 31, 2022 compared to the year ended December 31, 2021 primarily on the strength of sales growth across all of our end markets as well as strong price/mix growth. Sales price increases allowed us to gain significant leverage on our labor and other cost of sales expenses as a percentage of net revenue. However, ongoing industry wide supply chain issues impacted our operating efficiency, driving our material costs higher. In order to meet customer demand during the year, we purchased materials from distributors and home centers at a premium to what we typically would purchase directly from manufacturers. As a result, during the year ended December 31, 2022, we estimate these purchases increased materials expense by approximately $4.8 million, therefore reducing gross profit by 20 basis points during the period. While inflation and material supply chain issues are likely to persist into 2023, we will continue to work with our suppliers to lessen the impact on our margins and with our customers to offset further cost increases through selling price adjustments.

Operating Expenses

Operating expenses for 2022, 2021 and 2020 were as follows (dollars in thousands):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","2022","","Change","","2021","","Change","","2020"],["Selling","$","119,031","","27.7","%","","$","93,204","","14.2","%","","$","81,613"],["Percentage of total net revenue","4.5","%","","","","4.7","%","","","","4.9","%"],["Administrative","$","335,688","","23.2","%","","$","272,391","","14.4","%","","$","238,147"],["Percentage of total net revenue","12.6","%","","","","13.8","%","","","","14.4","%"],["Gains on acquisition earnouts","$","(16,109)","","1456.4","%","","$","(1,035)","","","450.5","%","","$","(188)"],["Percentage of total net revenue","(0.6)","%","","","","(0.1)","%","","","","0.0","%"],["Amortization","$","43,763","","18.0","%","","$","37,079","","29.9","%","","$","28,535"],["Percentage of total net revenue","1.6","%","","","","1.9","%","","","","1.7","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Selling

The dollar increase in selling expenses in 2022 was primarily driven by a year-over-year increase in selling wages, benefits and commissions of $23.4 million, or 27.5%, which supported our increased net revenue of 35.6%. Selling expense decreased as a percentage of sales primarily due to increased leverage on selling wages from increased sales.

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Administrative

The dollar increase in administrative expenses in 2022 was primarily due to an increase in wages and benefits in the amount of $32.2 million, which was attributable to both acquisitions and organic growth as well as favorable company performance. Facility expense and insurance cost increases due to organic and acquisition-driven growth also factored into the overall increase in administrative operating expenses. During 2022, we saw our administrative costs decrease as a percentage of sales primarily due to the leverage gained on these costs from an increase in net revenue. 2021 and 2020 balances previously included amounts on the gains on acquisition earnouts that were recast during the year ended December 31, 2022 on the Consolidated Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Income.

Gains on acquisition earnouts

Some of our acquisitions have contingent consideration liabilities in the form of earnouts included in the total purchase price of the business. We assess the fair value of the contingent consideration liability at each reporting period, and any changes in the estimated fair value are reflected in gains on acquisition earnouts on the Consolidated Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Income. The gain recorded during the year ended December 31, 2022 increased from 2021 primarily due to a $15.1 million gain on the Central Aluminum Supply Corporation earnout recorded as a result of revised earnout target expectations. Prior period amounts were previously included in administrative expenses on the Consolidated Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Income.

Amortization

Our intangible assets include non-competes, customer relationships, trade names and backlog established upon acquisition of most businesses we acquire. Amortization expense increased $2.9 million in 2022 resulting from the increase in new intangible assets from 2022 acquisitions, with the remaining increase due to a full year of amortization expense attributable to prior year acquisitions. See Note 18, Business Combinations, in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, of this Form 10-K for information on our acquisitions.

Other Expense, net

Other expense, net for 2022, 2021 and 2020 was as follows (dollars in thousands):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","2022","","Change","","2021","","Change","","2020"],["Interest expense, net","$","41,574","","","26.6","%","","$","32,842","","","8.4","%","","$","30,291"],["Other","530","","","(221.3)","%","","(437)","","(209.5)","%","","399"],["Total other expense, net","$","42,104","","","29.9","%","","$","32,405","","","5.6","%","","$","30,690"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

The year-over-year increase in other expense, net during 2022 was primarily a result of increased interest rates on our variable rate debt and increased average debt levels. See Note 8, Long-Term Debt, in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, of this Form 10-K for further information regarding debt balances.

Income Tax Provision

Income tax provision and effective tax rates for 2022, 2021 and 2020 were as follows (dollars in thousands):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","2022","","2021","","2020"],["Income tax provision","$","79,879","","$","36,712","","$","33,938"],["Effective tax rate","26.3","%","","23.6","%","","25.9","%"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

During the year ended December 31, 2022, our tax rate was unfavorably impacted by certain expenses not being deductible for income tax reporting purposes.

During the year ended December 31, 2021, our tax rate was favorably impacted by the release of a valuation allowance for a tax filing entity, excess tax benefits from share-based compensation arrangements and statute of limitation expirations of uncertain tax positions.

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Other comprehensive gain (loss), net of tax

Other comprehensive gain (loss), net of tax for 2022, 2021 and 2020 were as follows (in thousands):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","2022","","2021","","2020"],["Unrealized gain (loss) on cash flow hedge, net of taxes","$","40,787","","","$","8,536","","","$","(1,620)"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

During the year ended December 31, 2022, we amended the maturity dates for our three existing interest rate swaps. These swaps had unrealized gains of $51.2 million at the amendment date of July 8, 2022 and the amendment created off-market terms of $25.7 million due to an other-than-insignificant financing element. The unrealized gains will be amortized as a decrease to interest expense, net through the original maturity date of April 2030 and the off-market terms will be amortized as an increase to interest expense, net through December 2025. We amortized $3.9 million of the remaining unrealized gains, off-market terms and unrealized losses on our terminated cash flow hedges to interest expense, net during the year ended December 31, 2022, not including tax effects of $1.0 million. Also, during the year ended December 31, 2022, we recorded an unrealized gain, net of taxes, of $37.9 million on our cash flow hedges primarily due to the market's expectations for interest rates in the future relative to our three existing interest rate swaps and two forward interest rate swaps.

During the year ended December 31, 2021, we recorded an unrealized gain, net of taxes, of $6.4 million on our cash flow hedges primarily due to the market's expectations for interest rates in the future relative to our July 2021 swap. We also amortized $3.2 million of the unrealized loss on our terminated cash flow hedges to interest expense, net during the year ended December 31, 2021, not including tax effects of $1.1 million.

We amortize the unrealized gains and losses on our terminated cash flow hedges at the time of termination over the course of the originally scheduled settlement dates of the terminated swaps. For more information on our cash flow hedges, see "Liquidity and Capital Resources, Derivative Instruments" below and Note 12, Derivatives and Hedging Activities, in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, of this Form 10-K.

KEY FACTORS AFFECTING OUR OPERATING RESULTS

Inflation and Interest Rates

Inflation affected the economy as a whole in 2022 as consumer price inflation reached 40-year highs, negatively impacting consumer sentiment and increasing market uncertainty. The Federal Reserve took actions to moderate and stabilize inflation by raising the federal funds rate multiple times in 2022 and signaling plans to continue raising the rate in 2023. This caused the average mortgage rate in the United States to more than double since the end of 2021. Rising interest rates began to curtail housing demand in the second half of 2022, reducing mortgage financing affordability. As a result, the residential homebuilding market began showing signs of weakening in late 2022 and early 2023 and housing starts, permits and completions are forecasted to decline in 2023.

We expect to be impacted by these economic headwinds in 2023. However, we believe the large residential construction backlog of both units under construction and units not started will partially offset these challenges. Additionally, there are housing shortages in some of the markets we serve and we expect that backlog in our growing multi-family business will also help to offset any declines we may face in the residential homebuilding market. Many existing homeowners are locked into low interest mortgages and with an aging housing stock, so we expect that the repair and remodel markets we service could experience growth as well. Incentives from the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 are also likely to support repair and remodel demand in 2023, as evidenced by growth in this market of nearly 50% in the three months ended December 31, 2022 compared to the same period in 2021.

Trends in the Construction Industry

Rising inflation and interest rates, as discussed above, began to reduce the demand and affordability of new homes in late 2022. Previously, residential housing demand experienced a rapid recovery after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic. This quick increase in demand created material shortages, causing inflationary pressure on materials. As a result, we experienced significant price increases on most of the products we install. We anticipate these shortages will partially lessen in 2023 assuming inflationary pressures cause housing demand to lessen. This outlook may change depending on housing demand and the ability of manufacturers to produce adequate supply.

Our operating results may vary based on our product mix and the mix of our end markets among new single-family, multi-family and commercial builders and owners of existing homes. We maintain a mix of business among all types of homebuilders

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ranging from small custom builders to large regional and national homebuilders as well as a wide range of commercial builders. Net revenue derived from our ten largest homebuilder customers in the United States was approximately 16% for the year ended December 31, 2022. The residential new construction and repair and remodel markets represented approximately 80% of our total net revenue for the year ended December 31, 2022, compared to 83% in the same period in 2021. The remaining portion was attributable to our new distribution businesses and the commercial construction end market.

Cost and Availability of Materials

We typically purchase the materials we use in our business directly from manufacturers. The industry supply of these materials experienced supply shortages in 2022 due to strong demand and effects from the COVID-19 pandemic. In order to meet customer demand during the year, we purchased materials from distributors and home centers at a premium to what we typically would purchase directly from manufacturers, therefore reducing gross profit.

In addition, we experience price increases from our suppliers from time to time, including multiple increases over the last three years caused by supply shortages and general economic inflationary pressures. We have experienced unprecedented increased pricing for fiberglass and foam insulation materials over the last three years but expect manufacturers to slow the pace of price increases in 2023. Increased market pricing, regardless of the catalyst, has and could continue to impact our results of operations in 2023, to the extent that price increases cannot be passed on to our customers. Our selling price increases were able to support most material cost increases in 2022 but we may have more difficulty raising prices in 2023 if housing demand slows. We will continue to work with our customers to adjust selling prices to offset higher costs as they occur.

Cost of Labor

Our business is labor intensive. As of December 31, 2022, we had approximately 10,300 employees, most of whom work as installers on local construction sites. We expect to spend more to hire, train and retain installers to support our growing business in 2023, as tight labor availability continues within the construction industry. We offer a comprehensive benefits package unlike many of our local competitors, which will increase costs as we hire additional personnel. Our workers’ compensation costs also continue to rise as we increase our coverage for additional personnel. We obtained leverage on our labor costs during the year ended December 31, 2022, compared to 2021 due to increased selling prices per job. However, inflation and market competition could increase these costs in the near-term.

We experienced strong employee retention, turnover and labor efficiency rates in the year ended December 31, 2022. We believe this is partially a result of various programs meant to benefit our employees, including our financial wellness plan, longevity stock compensation plan for employees and assistance from the Installed Building Products Foundation meant to benefit our employees, their families and their communities. While improved retention drives lower costs to recruit and train new employees, resulting in greater installer productivity, these improvements are somewhat offset by the additional costs of these incentives.

COVID-19 Impacts

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused significant volatility, uncertainty and economic disruption. As the pandemic continues to move towards the endemic stage, the full extent and scope of the impact on our business and industry, as well as national, regional and global markets and economies, depends on numerous evolving factors that we may not be able to accurately predict, including the duration and scope of the pandemic, additional government actions taken in response to the pandemic, the impact on construction activity and demand for homes (based on employment levels, consumer spending and consumer confidence). The fast recovery in residential housing demand helped offset prolonged impacts of the pandemic already experienced. However, we have experienced supply constraints and material price increases ultimately stemming from the effects of the pandemic across most of the products we install or sell, which could continue into 2023.

In the commercial sector, we have experienced some impact to our commercial business from the pandemic, mainly in the form of project start delays and other inefficiencies. In the future, certain large-scale infrastructure programs may be at risk if the need for such structures decline, project funding declines or as consumer behaviors change in the wake of COVID-19 disruptions to the economy and changes to our general ways of life. For example, reduced demand for office buildings and/or educational facilities, decreased airport traffic, or decreased usage of sports arenas or similar commercial structures could impact our commercial end market. We continue to evaluate the nature and extent of the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on our financial condition, results of operations and cash flows.

On March 27, 2020, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security ("CARES Act") was signed into law. The CARES Act provides numerous tax provision and other stimulus measures. We benefited from the temporary suspension of the employer portion of Social Security taxes by deferring $20.7 million of payments in 2020. We have since paid back these deferrals,

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including paying 50% back in the year ended December 31, 2022. It is important to note that this does not impact the timing of the expense, only the timing of the payment.

Environmental, Social and Governance, Climate Change and Other Factors

According to the Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, over $400 billion is spent each year to power homes and commercial structures that consume 75% of all electricity used in the United States and 40% of the nation’s total energy. As a result, U.S. buildings account for 35% of the U.S. carbon dioxide emissions that drive the climate crisis. Insulation is a critical component in the construction of homes and commercial structures. Installing insulation also helps increase energy conservation because it is the best way to prevent energy waste in most homes and commercial structures. Beyond our service offerings, we also recognize that as a good corporate citizen, we have a responsibility to support our communities and be stewards of the environment. We have transitioned a large portion of our electricity supply to a carbon-free energy source and entered a national waste management program to increase recycling at our facilities, reducing landfill waste. We continue to work to find new ways to reduce our carbon footprint.

Certain effects of climate change that may cause severe weather events could have a material effect on our operations. Climate change and/or adverse weather conditions such as unusually prolonged cold conditions, rain, blizzards, hurricanes, earthquakes, fires, or other natural disasters could accelerate, delay or halt construction or installation activity or impact our suppliers. The impacts of climate change may subject us to increased costs, regulations, reporting requirements, standards or expectations regarding the environmental impacts of our business. Most, if not all, of our locations may be vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change. Weather is one of the main reasons for annual seasonality cycles of our business, and any adverse weather conditions can enhance this seasonality.

Lastly, we expect our selling and administrative expenses to continue to increase as our business grows, which could impact our future operating profitability.

SEASONALITY

We tend to have higher sales during the second half of the year as our homebuilder customers complete construction of homes placed under contract for sale in the traditionally stronger spring selling season. In addition, some of our larger branches operate in states impacted by winter weather and as such experience a slowdown in construction activity during the first quarter of the calendar year. This winter slowdown contributes to traditionally lower sales and profitability in our first quarter. See Part I, Item 1, Business, of this Form 10-K for further information.

LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

Our capital resources primarily consist of cash from operations and borrowings under our various debt agreements and capital equipment leases and loans. As of December 31, 2022, we had cash and cash equivalents of $229.6 million as well as access to $250.0 million under our asset-based lending credit facility (as defined below), less $5.8 million of outstanding letters of credit, resulting in total liquidity of $473.9 million. Our total liquidity is reduced by $1.6 million within our cash and cash equivalents due to a deposit into a trust to serve as additional collateral for our workers' compensation and general liability policies. This amount can be converted to a letter of credit at our discretion and would reduce the availability of our asset-based lending facility (as defined below). Liquidity may also be limited in the future by certain cash collateral limitations under our asset-based credit facility (as defined below), depending on the status of our borrowing base availability.

We experienced unprecedented increases in pricing for fiberglass and foam insulation materials in 2022. Increased market pricing on the materials we purchase has and could continue to impact our results of operations in 2023 due to the higher prices we must pay for materials.

Short-Term Material Cash Requirements

For at least the next twelve months, our primary capital requirements are to fund working capital needs, operating expenses, acquisitions and capital expenditures and to meet principal and interest obligations and make required income tax payments. We may also use our resources to fund our optional stock repurchase program and pay quarterly and annual dividends. During 2023, we anticipate discretionary spending for capital improvements and quarterly dividends to approximate 2022 levels of approximately $45.6 million and $36.0 million, respectively, as well as approximately $25.2 million for our annual variable dividend to be paid March 31, 2023. In addition, we expect to use cash and cash equivalents to acquire various companies with at least $100.0 million in aggregate net revenue. The amount of cash paid for an acquisition is dependent on various factors, including the size and determined value of the business being acquired.

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Firm commitments for funds include $68.5 million in interest and principals payments on long-term debt obligations including our Senior Notes, Term Loan, notes payable to sellers of acquisitions and vehicles purchased under the Master Loan and Security Agreement, the Master Equipment Agreement and the Master Loan Agreements. Additionally, we maintain certain production vehicles under a finance lease structure which will require $3.0 million in interest and principal payments under current agreements in 2023. We lease certain locations, vehicles and equipment under operating lease agreements that will require $28.9 million in funds over the next twelve months. Finally, we have a product supply agreement with a certain vendor that requires us to purchase a minimum of $27.0 million of inventory in 2023. Payments for income taxes cannot be estimated at this time.

We expect to meet our short-term liquidity requirements primarily through net cash flows from operations, our cash and cash equivalents on hand and borrowings from banks under the Master Loan and Security Agreement, the Master Equipment Agreement and the Master Loan Agreements. Additional sources of funds, should we need them, include borrowing capacity under our asset-based lending credit facility (as defined below).

We believe that our cash flows from operations, combined with our current cash levels and available borrowing capacity, will be adequate to support our ongoing operations and to fund our business needs, commitments and contractual obligations for at least the next 12 months as evidenced by our net positive cash flows from operations for the years ended December 31, 2022, 2021 and 2020. We believe that we have access to additional funds, if needed, through the capital markets to obtain further debt financing under the current market conditions, but we cannot guarantee that such financing will be available on favorable terms, or at all.

Long-Term Material Cash Requirements

Beyond the next twelve months, our principal demands for funds will be to fund working capital needs and operating expenses, to meet principal and interest obligations on our long-term debts and finance leases as they become due or mature, and to make required income tax payments. Additional funds may be spent on acquisitions, capital improvements and dividend payments, at our discretion.

Known obligations beyond the next twelve months include $1,036.5 million in interest and principals payments on long-term debt obligations noted above through 2028, as follows (amounts in thousands):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["2024","$","85,525"],["2025","72,305"],["2026","70,169"],["2027","59,555"],["Thereafter","810,167"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

In addition, our finance leases will require $7.0 million in interest and principal payments under current agreements through 2026. Operating lease obligations will require $54.2 million in payments beyond the next twelve months.

Sources and Uses of Cash and Related Trends

Working Capital

We carefully manage our working capital and operating expenses. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, our working capital, including cash and cash equivalents, was $556.4 million, or 20.8% of net revenue, and $551.7 million, or 28.0% of net revenue, respectively. The increase in working capital year-over-year was driven primarily by accounts receivable increasing $84.5 million resulting from our increased net revenue, and inventories increasing by $33.6 million due to material price inflation, increased selling activity and distribution company acquisitions. These increases were partially offset by a $103.9 million decrease in cash and cash equivalents resulting from the payment of dividends and share repurchases and an increase of $16.5 million in accounts payable primarily due to material price inflation and increased sales volume. We continue to look for opportunities to reduce our working capital as a percentage of net revenue.

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The following table presents our cash flows (in thousands):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","Years ended December 31,"],["","2022","","2021","","2020"],["Net cash provided by operating activities","$","277,904","","","$","138,314","","","$","180,789"],["Net cash used in investing activities","$","(158,669)","","","$","(278,439)","","","$","(77,794)"],["Net cash (used in) provided by financing activities","$","(223,093)","","","$","242,090","","","$","(49,364)"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

Cash Flows from Operating Activities

Our primary source of cash provided by operations is revenues generated from installing or selling building products and the resulting operating income generated by these revenues. Operating income is adjusted for certain non-cash items, and our cash flows from operations can be impacted by the timing of our cash collections on sales and collection of retainage amounts. The COVID-19 pandemic has not had a material impact to our cash collections to date. Our primary uses of cash from operating activities include payments for installation materials, compensation costs, leases, income taxes and other general corporate expenditures included in net income.

Net cash provided by operating activities increased from 2021 to 2022 primarily due to higher net income due to increased sales. We also received a cash payment of $25.5 million for amending the maturity date of our interest rate swap derivatives.

Cash Flows from Investing Activities

Sources of cash from investing activities consist primarily of proceeds from the sales of property and equipment and, periodically, maturities from short term investments. Cash used in investing activities consists primarily of purchases of property and equipment, payments for acquisitions and, periodically, purchases of short term investments.

Net cash used by investing activities decreased from 2021 to 2022 primarily due to the decrease in payments for acquisitions. We completed three less acquisitions in 2022 compared to 2021, and the size of the acquisitions were generally larger in the year ended December 31, 2021. The amount of cash paid for an acquisition is dependent on various factors, including the size and determined value of the business being acquired. See Note 18, Business Combinations, in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, of this Form 10-K for more information regarding our business acquisitions in 2022, 2021 and 2020.

Additionally, total cash used to purchase property and equipment increased in 2022, and we expect to continue to support any increases in future net revenue through further capital expenditures. A majority of these capital expenditures were subsequently reimbursed via various vehicle and equipment notes payable, with related cash inflows shown in cash flows from financing activities.

Cash Flows from Financing Activities

Our sources of cash from financing activities consist of proceeds from the issuance of debt and new vehicle and equipment notes payable. Cash used in financing activities consists primarily of debt repayments, acquisition-related obligations, dividends and stock repurchases.

We had a net use of cash in financing activities in 2022 compared to a net inflow of cash in 2021 primarily due to the proceeds on our Term Loan received in 2021. We did not incur any such significant new borrowings during the year ended December 31, 2022. We also repurchased $137.6 million of common stock during the year ended December 31, 2022 while we did not repurchase any shares under our stock repurchase plan during the year ended December 31, 2021. Our net cash (used in) provided by financing activities during the year ended December 31, 2022 also included the payment of our first variable annual dividend of $26.2 million.

Debt

5.75% Senior Notes due 2028

In September 2019, we issued $300.0 million in aggregate principal amount of 5.75% senior unsecured notes (the “Senior Notes”). The Senior Notes will mature on February 1, 2028 and interest will be payable semi-annually in cash in arrears on February 1 and August 1, commencing on February 1, 2020. The net proceeds from the Senior Notes offering were $295.0 million after debt issuance costs.

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The indenture covering the Senior Notes contains restrictive covenants that, among other things, limit the ability of the Company and certain of our subsidiaries (subject to certain exceptions) to: (i) incur additional debt and issue preferred stock; (ii) pay dividends on, redeem or repurchase stock in an aggregate amount exceeding 2.0% of market capitalization per fiscal year, or in an aggregate amount exceeding certain applicable restricted payment baskets; (iii) prepay subordinated debt; (iv) create liens; (v) make specified types of investments; (vi) apply net proceeds from certain asset sales; (vii) engage in transactions with affiliates; (viii) merge, consolidate or sell substantially all of our assets; and (ix) pay dividends and make other distributions from subsidiaries.

Credit Facilities

In February 2022, we amended and extended the term of our asset-based lending credit agreement (the "ABL Credit Agreement"). The ABL Credit Agreement increased the commitment under the asset-based lending credit facility (the "ABL Revolver") to $250 million from $200.0 million, and permits us to further increased the commitment amount up to $300.0 million. The amendment also extends the maturity date from September 26, 2024 to February 17, 2027. The ABL Revolver bears interest at either the base rate or the Secured Overnight Financing Rate ("Term SOFR"), at our election, plus a margin of 0.25% or 0.50% in the case of base rate loans or 1.25% or 1.50% for Term SOFR advances (in each case based on a measure of availability under the ABL Credit Agreement). The amendment also allows for modification of specified fees depend upon achieving certain sustainability targets, in addition to making other modifications to the ABL Credit Agreement. Including outstanding letters of credit, our remaining availability under the ABL Revolver as of December 31, 2022 was $244.2 million.

The ABL Revolver provides incremental revolving credit facility commitments of up to $50.0 million. The terms and conditions of any incremental revolving credit facility commitments must be no more favorable than the terms of the ABL Revolver. The ABL Revolver also allows for the issuance of letters of credit of up to $100.0 million in aggregate and borrowing of swingline loans of up to $25.0 million in aggregate.

The ABL Credit Agreement contains a financial covenant requiring the satisfaction of a minimum of fixed charge coverage ratio of 1.0x in the event that we do not meet a minimum measure of availability under the ABL Revolver. The ABL Credit Agreement and the Term Loan Agreement contain restrictive covenants that, among other things, limit the ability of the Company and certain of our subsidiaries (subject to certain exceptions) to: (i) incur additional debt and issue preferred stock; (ii) pay dividends on, redeem or repurchase stock in an aggregate amount exceeding the greater of 2.0% of market capitalization per fiscal year or certain applicable restricted payment basket amounts' (iii) prepay subordinated debt; (iv) create liens; (v) make specified types of investments; (vi) apply net proceeds from certain asset sales; (vii) engage in transactions with affiliates; (viii) merge, consolidate or sell substantially all of our assets; and (ix) pay dividends and make other distributions from subsidiaries.

In December 2021, we entered into a new $500 million, seven-year term loan facility due December 2028 (the “Term Loan”) under our credit agreement (the “Term Loan Agreement”), dated as of December 14, 2021 with Royal Bank of Canada as the administrative agent and collateral agent thereunder. The Term Loan amortizes in quarterly principal payments of $1.25 million starting on March 31, 2022, with any remaining unpaid balances due on the maturity date of December 14, 2028. The Term Loan bears interest at either the base rate (which approximates the prime rate) or the Eurodollar rate, plus a margin of (A) 1.25% in the case of base rate loans or (B) 2.25% in the case of Eurodollar rate loans. Proceeds from the Term Loan were used to refinance and repay in full all amounts outstanding under our previous term loan agreement. We intend to use the remaining funds for general corporate purposes, including acquisitions and other growth initiatives. As of December 31, 2022, we had $489.2 million, net of unamortized debt issuance costs, due on our Term Loan.

Subject to certain exceptions, the Term Loan will be subject to mandatory prepayments of (i) 100% of the net cash proceeds from issuances or incurrence of debt by the Company or any of its restricted subsidiaries (other than with respect to certain permitted indebtedness (excluding any refinancing indebtedness); (ii) 100% (with step-downs to 50% and 0% based on achievement of specified net leverage ratios) of the net cash proceeds from certain sales or dispositions of assets by the Company or any of its restricted subsidiaries in excess of a certain amount and subject to reinvestment provision and certain other exception; and (iii) 50% (with step-downs to 25% and 0% based upon achievement of specified net leverage ratios) of excess cash flow of the Company and its restricted subsidiaries in excess of $15.0 million, subject to certain exceptions and limitations.

All of the obligations under the Term Loan and ABL Revolver are guaranteed by all of the Company’s existing restricted subsidiaries and will be guaranteed by the Company’s future restricted subsidiaries. Additionally, all obligations under the Term Loan and ABL Revolver, and the guarantees of those obligations, are secured by substantially all of the assets of the Company and the guarantors, subject to certain exceptions and permitted liens, including a first-priority security interest in such assets that constitute ABL Priority Collateral, as defined in the ABL Credit Agreement, and a second-priority security interest in such assets that constitute Term Loan Priority Collateral, as defined in the Term Loan Agreement.

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As of December 31, 2022, we were in compliance with all applicable covenants under the Term Loan Agreement, ABL Credit Agreement, and the Senior Notes.

Derivative Instruments

As of December 31, 2022, we had five total interest rate swaps including two forward interest rate swaps. For a summary of notional amounts, maturity dates and interest rates for each of these swaps, see Note 12, Derivatives and Hedging Activities, in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data of this Form 10-K. Together, these five swaps serve to hedge $400.0 million of the variable cash flows on our variable rate Term Loan through maturity. The assets and liabilities associated with the forward interest rate swap are included in other current and other non-current assets on the Consolidated Balance Sheets at their fair value amounts as described in Note 10, Fair Value Measurements, in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, of this Form 10-K.

LIBOR is used as a reference rate for our Term Loan and our interest rate swap agreements we use to hedge our interest rate exposure. For more information on the discontinuance of LIBOR, see Item 7A. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures about Market Risk, of this Form 10-K.

Vehicle and Equipment Notes

We have financing loan agreements with various lenders to provide financing for the purpose of purchasing or leasing vehicles and equipment used in the normal course of business. Vehicles and equipment purchased or leased under each financing arrangement serve as collateral for the note applicable to such financing arrangement. Regular payments are due under each note for a period of typically 60 consecutive months after the incurrence of the obligation.

Total outstanding loan balances relating to our master loan and equipment agreements were $73.0 million and $69.2 million as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively. Depreciation of assets held under these agreements is included within cost of sales on the Consolidated Statements of Operations and Comprehensive Income. See Note 8, Long-Term Debt, in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data of this Form 10-K for more information regarding our Master Loan and Security Agreement, Master Equipment Lease Agreement and Master Loan Agreements.

Letters of Credit and Bonds

We may use performance bonds to ensure completion of our work on certain larger customer contracts that can span multiple accounting periods. Performance bonds generally do not have stated expiration dates; rather, we are released from the bonds as the contractual performance is completed. In addition, we occasionally use letters of credit and cash to secure our performance under our general liability and workers’ compensation insurance programs. Permit and license bonds are typically issued for one year and are required by certain municipalities when we obtain licenses and permits to perform work in their jurisdictions.

The following table summarizes our outstanding bonds, letters of credit and cash-collateral (in thousands):

[[GREPCENT_TABLE]]
[["","As of December 31, 2022"],["Performance bonds","$","104,220"],["Insurance letters of credit and cash collateral","68,475"],["Permit and license bonds","9,682"],["Total bonds and letters of credit","$","182,377"]]
[[/GREPCENT_TABLE]]

We have $58.9 million included in our insurance letters of credit in the above table that are unsecured and therefore do not reduce total liquidity. As of December 31, 2022, we have $1.6 million posted into a trust to serve as additional collateral for our workers’ compensation and general liability policies. This collateral can be converted to a letter of credit at our discretion and is therefore not considered to be restricted cash.

Critical Accounting Estimates

Management’s discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations is based upon our consolidated financial statements, which have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States. The preparation of our consolidated financial statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets, liabilities, revenues and expenses and related disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities. Certain accounting policies involve judgments and uncertainties to such an extent that there is a reasonable likelihood that materially

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different amounts could have been reported using different assumptions or under different conditions. We evaluate our estimates and assumptions on a regular basis. We base our estimates on historical experience and various other assumptions that are believed to be reasonable under the circumstances, the results of which form the basis for making judgments about the carrying values of our assets and liabilities that are not readily apparent from other sources. Actual results may differ from these estimates and assumptions used in preparation of our consolidated financial statements. We believe the following critical accounting estimate requires judgement and estimation in the preparation of our consolidated financial statements and to be fundamental to our results of operations. See Note 2, Significant Accounting Policies included in Item 8 of the Form 10-K for a summary of all of our significant accounting policies and their effect on our financial statements.

Revenue recognition

The majority of our revenues are recognized when we complete our contracts with customers to install building products and the control of the promised good or service is transferred to our customers, in an amount that reflects the consideration we expect to be entitled to in exchange for those goods or services. For contracts that are not complete at the reporting date, we recognize revenue over time utilizing a cost-to-cost input method as we believe this represents the best measure of when goods and services are transferred to the customer. When this method is used, we estimate the costs to complete individual contracts and record as revenue that portion of the total contract price that is considered complete based on the relationship of costs incurred to date to total anticipated costs. Under the cost-to-cost method, the use of estimated costs to complete each contract is a significant variable in the process of determining recognized revenue and can change throughout the duration of a contract due to contract modifications and other factors impacting job completion. Our cost estimation process is based on the knowledge, significant experience and judgement of project management, finance professionals and operational management to assess a variety of factors to determine revenues on uncompleted contracts. Such factors include historical performance, costs of materials and labor, change orders and the nature of the work to be performed. We generally review and reassess our estimates for each uncompleted contract at least quarterly to reflect the latest reliable information available. Changes in these estimates could favorably or unfavorably impact revenues and their related profits.

Goodwill Impairment

We performed an annual quantitative goodwill impairment test as of October 1, 2022 on our Distribution operating segment which we have determined is also a reporting unit. The estimate of the reporting unit’s fair value was determined by placing a 75% weighting on a discounted cash flow model and a 25% weighting on market-related model using current industry information that involve significant unobservable inputs (Level 3 inputs). Based on the results of this evaluation, we concluded that there were no impairments of goodwill as the estimated fair value exceeded its carrying value. The estimated fair value exceeded the Distribution operating segment's carrying value by 8.6%. A 100 basis point change in the discount rate in our discounted cash flow model using our weighted system would not have resulted in an impairment for our Distribution operating segment, nor would reasonable changes in the weighting of each method. The estimates and assumptions used in the test are subject to uncertainty due to the professional judgments required. We performed a qualitative evaluation for our Installation and Manufacturing operating segments and determined that it was more likely than not that the fair value of these operating segments exceeded their carrying values.

Business combinations

We have recorded a significant amount of finite lived intangible assets associated with the acquisitions of businesses through our growth strategy. These intangible assets consist of customer relationships, backlog, non-competition agreements and business trademarks and trade names. Fair values and estimated useful lives are assigned to the identified intangible assets at the date of acquisition by financial professionals using either the income approach or the market approach along with certain industry information, professional experience and knowledge. In some instances, the process of assigning values and useful lives requires using judgment and other financial professionals may come to different conclusions. We review intangible assets whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying value of an asset may not be recoverable. An impairment loss is recognized when estimated future cash flows expected to result from the use of an asset and its eventual disposition are less than its carrying amount. When impairment is identified, the carrying amount of the asset is reduced to its estimated fair value. Impairment losses would negatively affect earnings.

We also record contingent consideration liabilities that arise from future earnout payments to the sellers associated with certain acquisitions and are based on predetermined calculations of certain future results. These future payments can require a significant amount of estimation by considering various factors, including business risk and projections. We have used various estimate techniques and also consult with a third party valuation expert in certain instances. The contingent consideration liabilities are measured at fair value by discounting estimated future payments to their net present value.

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Insurance risks

We carry insurance policies for a number of risks, including, but not limited to, workers’ compensation, general liability, vehicle liability, property and our obligation for employee-related health care benefits. Most of our insurance policies contain an element for which we assume a portion of the risk by having high deductibles or a large cap on claims. For a description of our different insurance programs, see Note 2, Significant Accounting Policies in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data in this Form 10-K.

Our largest healthcare plan is partially self-funded with an insurance company paying benefits in excess of stop loss limits per individual/family. An accrual for estimated healthcare claims incurred but not reported (“IBNR”) is included within accrued compensation on the Consolidated Balance Sheets and was $3.8 million and $3.3 million as of December 31, 2022 and 2021, respectively.

We participate in multiple workers’ compensation plans covering a significant portion of our business. Under these plans, we use a high deductible program to cover losses above the deductible amount on a per claim basis. We accrue for the estimated losses occurring from both asserted and unasserted claims. Insurance claims and reserves include accruals of estimated settlements for known claims, as well as accruals of actuarial estimates of IBNR claims. In estimating these reserves, historical loss experience and judgments about the expected levels of costs per claim are considered. These claims are accounted for based on actuarial estimates of the undiscounted claims, including IBNR. We believe the use of actuarial methods to account for these liabilities provides a consistent and effective way to measure these highly judgmental accruals. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, we estimated total short-term and long-term known and IBNR claims for workers' compensation to be $23.7 million and $21.4 million, respectively. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, offsets of these liabilities were $2.3 million and $2.1 million, respectively, with insurance receivables and indemnification assets for claims under fully insured policies or claims that exceeded the stop loss limit.

We also participate in a high retention general liability insurance program and a high deductible auto insurance program. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, general liability and auto insurance reserves included in other current and long-term liabilities were $25.0 million and $21.9 million, respectively. As of December 31, 2022 and 2021, offsets of these liabilities were $5.3 million and $3.9 million, respectively, with insurance receivables and indemnification assets for claims under fully insured policies or claims that exceeded the stop loss limit.

Liabilities relating to claims associated with these risks are estimated by considering historical claims experience, including frequency, severity, demographic factors and other actuarial assumptions. In estimating our liability for such claims, we periodically analyze our historical trends, including loss development, and apply appropriate loss development factors to the incurred costs associated with the claims with the assistance of external actuarial consultants. While we do not expect the amounts ultimately paid to differ significantly from our estimates, our reserves and corresponding expenses could be affected if future claim experience differs significantly from historical trends and actuarial assumptions.

We have not made any material changes in our methodology used to establish our insurance reserves during the years ended December 31, 2022 and 2021, and none of the adjustments to our estimates have been material.

Recent Accounting Pronouncements

For a description of recently issued and/or adopted accounting pronouncements, see Note 2, Significant Accounting Policies, in Item 8, Financial Statements and Supplementary Data, of this Form 10-K.