AXIS CAPITAL HOLDINGS LTD (AXS) FY 2024 MD&A

ITEM 7.    MANAGEMENT’S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

The following is a discussion and analysis of our results of operations for the years ended December 31, 2024 and 2023, and our financial condition at December 31, 2024 and 2023. This should be read in conjunction with Item 8 'Financial Statements and Supplementary Data' of this report. Unless otherwise noted, tabular dollars are in thousands, except per share amounts. Amounts may not reconcile due to rounding differences.

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2024 FINANCIAL HIGHLIGHTS

2024 Consolidated Results of Operations

•Net income available to common shareholders of $1.1 billion, or $12.49 per common share, and $12.35 per diluted common share

•Operating income(1) of $952 million, or $11.18 per diluted common share(1)

•Gross premiums written of $9.0 billion

•Net premiums written of $5.8 billion

•Net premiums earned of $5.3 billion

•Pre-tax catastrophe and weather-related losses, net of reinsurance, of $226 million ($182 million, after-tax), (Insurance: $216 million; Reinsurance: $10 million), or 4.3 points including $111 million or 2.1 points attributable to Hurricanes Milton, Helene and Beryl, together with $13 million, or 0.3 points attributable to the Red Sea Conflict.

•Net favorable prior year reserve development of $24 million

•Underwriting income(2) of $571 million and combined ratio of 92.3%

•Net investment income of $759 million

•Net investment losses of $139 million

•Foreign exchange gains of $51 million

•Reorganization expenses of $26 million

•Income tax benefit of $56 million, inclusive of a net deferred tax benefit of $177 million attributable to Bermuda's Corporate Income Tax Act 2023. Refer to 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Overview – Recent Developments – Bermuda Corporate Income Tax Act 2023 for further details.

2024 Consolidated Financial Condition

•Total cash and investments of $18.0 billion; fixed maturities, short-term investments, and cash and cash equivalents comprise 88% of total cash and investments and have an average credit rating of AA-

•Total assets of $32.5 billion

•Reserve for losses and loss expenses of $17.2 billion and reinsurance recoverable on unpaid and paid losses and loss expenses of $7.4 billion.

•Debt of $1.3 billion and a debt to total capital ratio(3) of 17.8%

•Total common shares repurchased were 3.1 million shares for a total of $216 million, including $200 million repurchased pursuant to our Board-authorized share repurchase program, and $16 million from employees to facilitate the satisfaction of their personal withholding tax liabilities that arise on vesting of share-settled restricted stock units

•Common shareholders’ equity of $5.5 billion; book value per diluted common share of $65.27

(1) Operating income (loss) and operating income (loss) per diluted common share are non-GAAP financial measures as defined in Item 10(e) of SEC Regulation S-K. The reconciliations to the most comparable GAAP financial measures, net income (loss) available (attributable) to common shareholders and earnings (loss) per diluted common share, respectively, and a discussion of the rationale for the presentation of these items are provided in 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Non-GAAP Financial Measures Reconciliation'.

(2)Consolidated underwriting income (loss) is a non-GAAP financial measure as defined in Item 10(e) of SEC Regulation S-K. The reconciliation to the most comparable GAAP financial measure, net income (loss), is presented in 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Consolidated Results of Operations', and a discussion of the rationale for its presentation is provided in 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Non-GAAP Financial Measures Reconciliation'.

(3)The debt to total capital ratio is calculated by dividing debt by total capital. Total capital represents the sum of total shareholders’ equity and debt.

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OVERVIEW

Business Overview

AXIS Capital, through its operating subsidiaries, is a global specialty underwriter and provider of insurance and reinsurance solutions with operations in Bermuda, the U.S., Europe, Singapore and Canada. Our underwriting operations are organized around our global underwriting platforms, AXIS Insurance and AXIS Re.

We provide our clients and distribution partners with a broad range of risk transfer products and services, and strong capacity, backed by excellent financial strength. We manage our portfolio holistically, aiming to construct the optimum portfolio of risks, consistent with our risk appetite and the development of our franchise. We nurture an ethical, entrepreneurial, disciplined and diverse culture that promotes outstanding client service, intelligent risk taking, operating efficiency, corporate citizenship and the achievement of superior risk-adjusted returns for our shareholders. We believe that the achievement of our objectives will position us as a global specialty underwriting leader. The execution of our business strategy in 2024 included the following:

•growing in a number of attractive specialty lines insurance and treaty reinsurance markets including U.S. excess and surplus lines and Lloyd's specialty insurance business;

•re-balancing our portfolio towards less volatile lines of business, that carry attractive returns while deploying capital within risk limit tolerance, diversification criteria and risk management strategy;

•investing in attractive growth markets and advancing capabilities to address more transactional specialist business targeting the lower middle market with our key distribution partners;

•leveraging our global platform to introduce our products and services to new regions including the continued expansion of our North America product capabilities;

•continuing the implementation of a more focused distribution strategy while building mutually beneficial relationships with clients and partners;

•improving the effectiveness and efficiency of our operating platforms and processes through our "How We Work" program;

•investing in data and technology, and exploring AI capabilities and tools, to empower our underwriters and enhance the service that we provide to our customers;

•utilizing reinsurance markets and third-party capital relationships;

•fostering a positive workplace environment that enables us to attract, retain and develop top talent; and

•growing our corporate citizenship program to support our communities and help contribute to a more sustainable future.

For discussion of our results of operations and changes in financial condition for year ended December 31, 2023, compared to year ended December 31, 2022, refer to Part II, Item 7. Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations in our 2023 Form 10-K, which was filed with the SEC on February 27, 2024, and such discussions are incorporated herein by reference.

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Outlook

We are executing on our commitment to advance AXIS as a specialty underwriting leader that delivers consistent, profitable growth. Our market positioning, diversified book of business, specialty underwriting acumen, global platform, claims management capabilities, and deep distribution relationships, supported by a conservative and well performing investment portfolio, provide the foundation for additional profitable growth in select specialty markets.

The overall outlook for the property and casualty market continues to be largely favorable for specialty insurance and reinsurance carriers. Looking at the trends impacting our business:

•Following multiple years of rate increases outpacing loss cost trends across the specialty sector, pricing is now more moderate, with the exception of casualty lines, due to the emergence of new capital in areas where the market has performed particularly well. We will continue to lean into sectors, and sub sectors, where premium adequacy metrics remain strong and where we see market dislocations creating opportunity for profitable growth.

•The wholesale channel continues to experience submission growth due to continued dislocations in the standard lines markets. This dynamic enables specialty carriers to target growth opportunities with a disciplined underwriting appetite and strategy.

•Pricing momentum in non-proportional reinsurance continues while our proportional reinsurance business is benefiting from rate increases in the underlying business. While we expect these market conditions to persist, we are seeing nuances by line of business with motor and marine lines under the most pressure. We continue to focus on underwriting discipline and targeted profitable growth.

Across the business, we will continue to pursue attractive opportunities by employing a focused underwriting strategy and selective appetite. Where price continues to deliver adequate profitability, we will look to grow within our risk and volatility guidelines. With a strengthened book of business, and an expanding footprint in attractive specialty markets, we believe AXIS remains positioned to drive profitable growth in 2025 and beyond.

Recent Developments

Share Repurchase program

On February 6, 2025, authorization under the Company's share repurchase program approved in May 2024 (refer to Item 8, Note 15 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Shareholders' Equity') was exhausted.

On February 19, 2025, the Company's Board of Directors approved a new share repurchase program for up to $400 million of the Company's common shares. The new share repurchase program is open-ended, allowing the Company to repurchase its shares from time to time in the open market or privately negotiated transactions, depending on market conditions.

Loss Portfolio Transfer Reinsurance Agreement with Enstar

On December 13, 2024, we entered into a loss portfolio transfer reinsurance agreement with Cavello Bay Reinsurance Limited, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Enstar Group Limited ("Enstar") to retrocede a portfolio of reinsurance business predominantly related to 2021 and prior underwriting years (refer to Item 8, Note 18 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Related Party Transactions' for further details). The transaction is subject to regulatory approvals and other customary conditions and is expected to close during the first half of 2025.

The transaction is structured as a 75% ground-up quota share retrocession of net reserves for losses and loss expenses of approximately $3.1 billion at September 30, 2024 and provides cover up to a policy limit of approximately $940 million. The transaction is deemed to have met the established criteria for retroactive reinsurance accounting (refer to Item 8, Note 9 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Reinsurance' for further details).

Under the terms of the loss portfolio transfer reinsurance agreement, we will retain responsibility for the management of claims.

Although retroactive reinsurance accounting may result in volatility to our results in the short-term, the loss portfolio transfer reinsurance agreement will protect us from prior year reserve development on the subject business over the contract term, provided this remains within the limit of the agreements.

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AXIS Syndicate 2050

On April 1, 2024, AXIS Energy Transition Syndicate 2050 ("Syndicate 2050") which is dedicated to providing capacity for new energy projects with a critical role in supporting the transition to net zero, commenced underwriting. AXIS Corporate Capital UK II Limited is the sole corporate member of Syndicate 2050. AXIS Managing Agency operates as managing agent for Syndicate 2050.

How We Work Program

Reorganization expenses of $26 million incurred in 2024 primarily related to severance costs attributable to our "How We Work" program which is focused on simplifying our operating structure.

Bermuda Corporate Income Tax Act of 2023

On December 27, 2023, the Bermuda government enacted the Corporate Income Tax Act 2023 (the "Act") which will apply a corporate income tax of 15% for fiscal years beginning on or after January 1, 2025. The Act includes a provision referred to as the economic transition adjustment ("Bermuda ETA"), which is intended to provide a fair and equitable transition into the tax regime. Pursuant to the Act and subsequently issued guidance, we recorded a net deferred tax asset of $177 million during the year ended December 31, 2024. Initially, we expected to utilize mainly over a ten-year period. We expect to incur increased taxes in Bermuda beginning in 2025. The Bermuda net deferred tax benefit is excluded from operating income (loss).

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development ("OECD") Update

On January 15, 2025, the OECD issued guidelines that limit the use of the Bermuda ETA and similar assets in other jurisdictions in which we operate under GLoBE rules. The guidelines clarify the use of deferred tax assets under transition rules and limits the benefit of deferred tax assets relating to transactions that occurred after November 30, 2021. The guidelines seek to restrict the benefit of the Bermuda ETA to 20% of the balance at January 1, 2025 to be utilized in 2025 and 2026, thereafter GLoBE rules will ensure the balance of the asset is subject to the global minimum tax of 15%.

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CONSOLIDATED RESULTS OF OPERATIONS

nm – not meaningful is defined as a variance greater than +/-100%

(1)Underwriting-related general and administrative expenses is a non-GAAP financial measure as defined in Item 10(e) of SEC Regulation S-K. The reconciliation to general and administrative expenses, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, also included corporate expenses of $130 million, $133 million, and $130 million for 2024, 2023, and 2022, respectively. Refer to 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Other Expenses (Revenues), Net' for further details on corporate expenses. Refer also to 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Non-GAAP Financial Measures Reconciliation' for further details.

(2)Consolidated underwriting income (loss) is a non-GAAP financial measure as defined in Item 10(e) of SEC Regulation S-K. The reconciliation to net income (loss), the most comparable GAAP financial measure, is presented in the table above. Refer also to 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Non-GAAP Financial Measures Reconciliation' for further details.

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Underwriting Revenues

Underwriting revenues by segment were as follows:

Refer to 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Results by Segment' for further details on underwriting revenues.

Combined Ratio

The components of the combined ratio were as follows:

(1)Current accident year loss ratio, catastrophe and weather-related losses ratio and current accident year loss ratio, excluding catastrophe and weather-related losses are non-GAAP financial measures as defined in Item 10(e) of SEC Regulation S-K. The reconciliations to the most comparable GAAP financial measure, net losses and loss expenses ratio is provided above and a discussion of the rationale for the presentation of these items are provided in 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Non-GAAP Financial Measures Reconciliation'.

(2)The general and administration expense ratio included corporate expenses not allocated to underwriting segments of 2.4%, 2.6% and 2.5% for 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively. Refer to 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Other Expenses (Revenues), Net' for further details.

Refer to 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Results by Segment' for further details on underwriting expenses.

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RESULTS BY SEGMENT

Insurance Segment

Results for the insurance segment were as follows:

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Gross Premiums Written

Gross premiums written by line of business were as follows:

Gross premiums written in 2024 increased by $475 million, or 8% ($457 million, or 7%, on a constant currency basis(1)), compared to 2023. The increase was primarily attributable to property, accident and health, credit and political risk, marine and aviation, and professional lines, partially offset by decreases in cyber and liability lines.

The increase in property lines was due to new business, a higher level of premiums and increased rate associated with renewed business and increased lines sizes on several programs.

The increase in accident and health lines was primarily driven by new pet insurance business, a higher level of premiums and increased rate associated with renewed pet insurance business and premium adjustments related to several contracts at Lloyds, partially offset by non-renewals.

The increase in credit and political risk lines was attributable to new surety program business and new credit business at Lloyds, partially offset by non-renewals associated with the exit from Singapore in January 2024 and non-renewals of political risk business at Lloyds.

The increase in marine and aviation lines was related to new marine liability business, premium adjustments principally associated with marine war business written on a line slip basis, new business and the timing of renewals of marine offshore energy business and favorable rate changes in marine business as well as aviation business, partially offset by fewer business opportunities and the timing of renewals of marine offshore renewable energy business.

The increase in professional lines was attributable to higher level of activity in transactional liability business, partially offset by a decrease in U.S. public D&O business reflecting weaker pricing in that market.

The decrease in cyber lines was due to lower levels of premiums associated with the cancellation of two significant programs, and premium adjustments related to business written on a line slip basis, partially offset by a higher level of premiums associated with renewed business.

The decrease in liability lines was driven by underwriting actions taken to reposition the U.S. primary casualty portfolio, and a lower level of premiums associated with the cancellation of a significant program, partially offset by favorable rate change and new business associated with U.S. excess casualty business.

(1) Amounts presented on a constant currency basis are non-GAAP financial measures as defined in Item10 (e) of SEC Regulation S-K. The constant currency basis is calculated by applying the average foreign exchange rate from the current year to the prior year balance.

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Ceded Premiums Written

Ceded premiums written in 2024 were $2,365 million, or 36% of gross premiums written, compared to $2,382 million, or 39% in 2023. The decrease in ceded premiums written of $17 million, or 1% was primarily driven by decreases in cyber and professional lines, partially offset by increases in accident and health, property, credit and political risk, marine and aviation and liability lines.

The decreases in cyber, and professional lines were due to the restructuring of significant existing quota share treaties. The decrease in cyber lines also reflected the decrease in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023.

The increase in accident and health lines was driven by a new quota share treaty and reflected the increase in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023.

The increase in property lines reflected the increase in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023, partially offset by the restructuring of a significant existing quota share treaty.

The increase in credit and political risk lines reflected the increase in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023.

The increase in marine and aviation lines was attributable to reinstatement premiums associated with losses and loss expenses in 2024.

Net Premiums Earned

Net premiums earned by line of business were as follows:

Net premiums earned in 2024 increased by $464 million, or 13%, compared to 2023. The increase was primarily driven by increases in gross premiums earned in property, accident and health, marine and aviation, and credit and political risk lines, together with decreases in ceded premiums earned in professional lines and cyber lines. These amounts were partially offset by increases in ceded premiums earned in property, credit and political risk, accident and health, and marine and aviation lines together with decreases in gross premiums earned in professional lines and cyber lines.

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Loss Ratio

The components of the loss ratio were as follows:

Current Accident Year Loss Ratio

The current accident year loss ratio increased to 57.6% in 2024 from 55.0% in 2023. The increase in the current accident year loss ratio was impacted by a higher level of catastrophe and weather-related losses.

During 2024, catastrophe and weather-related losses, net of reinsurance, were $216 million, or 5.5 points, including natural catastrophe and weather-related losses of $203 million, or 5.2 points, primarily attributable to Hurricanes Milton, Helene, and Beryl, and other weather-related events. The remaining losses of $13 million, or 0.3 points were attributable to the Red Sea Conflict.

Comparatively, in 2023, catastrophe and weather-related losses, net of reinsurance, were $111 million, or 3.2 points, primarily attributable to the conflict in the Middle East, the Earthquake in Turkey, Maui wildfires, Cyclone Gabrielle, Typhoon Mawar and other weather-related events.

Adjusting for the impact of the catastrophe and weather-related losses, the current accident year loss ratio increased to 52.1% in 2024 from 51.8% in 2023. The increase was principally due to higher loss ratios in liability and cyber lines, partially offset by the change in business mix attributable to the increase in property business written in recent periods which is associated with a relatively lower loss ratio.

Prior Year Reserve Development

Refer to Item 8, Note 8 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Reserve for Losses and Loss Expenses' for details of prior year reserve development by segment, line of business and accident year.

Acquisition Cost Ratio

The acquisition cost ratio increased to 19.5% in 2024 from 18.7% in 2023, primarily related to an increase in profit commission expense driven by improved loss performance mainly in accident and health lines, and a decrease in ceding commissions due to changes in business mix driven by the decrease in professional lines business written in recent periods which is associated with relatively higher ceding commissions and the increase in property business written in recent periods which is associated with relatively lower ceding commissions.

Underwriting-Related General and Administrative Expense Ratio

The underwriting-related general and administrative expense ratio decreased to 12.4% in 2024 from 13.7% in 2023, mainly driven by increases in net premiums earned, partially offset by an increase in performance-related compensation costs.

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Reinsurance Segment

Results for the reinsurance segment were as follows:

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Gross Premiums Written:

Gross premiums written by line of business were as follows:

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Gross premiums written in 2024 increased by $175 million, or 8%, compared to 2023. The increase was primarily attributable to credit and surety, professional lines, accident and health, motor, agriculture, marine and aviation, and engineering lines, partially offset by decreases in liability, catastrophe and property lines.

The increase in credit and surety lines was driven by new business, including new structured credit and political risk business and new mortgage business, together with premium adjustments associated with mortgage business.

The increase in professional lines was attributable to new cyber business and increased line sizes on a several cyber contracts, partially offset by negative premium adjustments associated with challenging market conditions in 2024, compared to positive premium adjustments associated with favorable market conditions in 2023, non-renewals of several under-performing contracts and the timing of renewals of two significant contracts.

The increase in accident and health lines was due to new business and positive premium adjustments in 2024, compared to the negative premium adjustments in 2023, partially offset by decreased line sizes on several contracts.

The increase in motor lines was attributable to the timing of the renewal of a significant proportional contract and new non-proportional business associated with favorable market conditions, a higher level of positive premium adjustments related to non-proportional business associated with favorable market conditions in 2024, compared to 2023, together with the impact of foreign exchange movements, partially offset by non-renewals and decreased line sizes on several proportional contracts associated with repositioning the portfolio.

The increase in agriculture lines was due to new business and increased line sizes on several contracts, partially offset by negative premium adjustments associated with challenging market conditions in 2024, compared to positive premium adjustments in 2023.

The increase in marine and aviation lines was driven by new proportional and non-proportional marine business.

The increase in engineering lines was due to a higher level of positive prior year premium adjustments in 2024, compared to 2023.

The decrease in liability lines was related to the restructuring of several significant contracts, a lower level of U.S. exposed risks, and a lower level of positive premium adjustments in 2024, compared to 2023, partially offset by new business.

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The decreases in catastrophe and property lines were attributable to the exit from these lines of business in June 2022.

Ceded Premiums Written

Ceded premiums written in 2024 were $883 million, or 37%, of gross premiums written, compared to $872 million, or 39%, in 2023. The increase in ceded premiums written of $11 million, or 1%, was primarily driven by increases in credit and surety, accident and health, motor and agriculture lines, partially offset by decreases in liability, professional lines and catastrophe lines.

The increase in credit and surety lines reflected the increase in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023, and the restructuring of a significant quota share retrocession treaty with a strategic capital partner, partially offset by the non-renewal of a significant quota share retrocession treaty.

The increase in accident and health lines reflected the increase in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023.

The increase in motor lines reflected the increase in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023, partially offset by the restructuring of a significant quota share retrocession treaty with a strategic capital partner.

The increase in agriculture lines was related to premiums ceded to a new whole account quota share retrocessional treaty.

The decrease in liability lines was attributable to the restructuring of significant quota share retrocession treaties with strategic capital partners and the decrease in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023.

The decrease in professional lines was driven by the restructuring of significant quota share retrocession treaties with strategic capital partners, partially offset by the increase in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023.

The decrease in catastrophe lines reflected the decrease in gross premiums written for 2024, compared to 2023 following the exit from this line of business in June 2022.

Net Premiums Earned

Net premiums earned by line of business were as follows:

Net premiums earned in 2024 decreased by $242 million, or 15%, ($225 million, or 14%, on a constant currency basis), compared to 2023. The decrease was primarily driven by increases in ceded premiums earned in liability, professional lines, accident and health, and motor lines, together with decreases in gross premiums earned in property, catastrophe and liability lines. These amounts were partially offset by a decrease in ceded premiums earned in catastrophe lines, together with increases in gross premiums earned in professional lines, and accident and health lines.

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Other Insurance Related Income (Loss)

Other insurance related income of $31 million in 2024, compared to other insurance related income of $23 million in 2023, an increase of $8 million, primarily driven by interest on loan advances to Monarch Point Re.

Loss Ratio

The components of the loss ratio were as follows:

Current Accident Year Loss Ratio

The current accident year loss ratio increased to 66.7% in 2024 from 66.4% in 2023.

During 2024, catastrophe and weather-related losses, net of reinsurance, were $10 million, or 0.7 points, primarily attributable to Hurricanes Milton and Helene and other weather-related events.

Comparatively, in 2023, catastrophe and weather-related losses, net of reinsurance, were $27 million, or 1.6 points, primarily attributable to Cyclone Gabrielle and other weather-related events.

Adjusting for the impact of the catastrophe and weather-related losses, the current accident year loss ratio increased to 66.0% in 2024 from 64.8% in 2023. The increase was principally due to a higher loss ratio in liability lines, partially offset by the impact of the loss expense related to the retrocession agreement entered into with Monarch Point Re reflected in the prior year.

Prior Year Reserve Development

Refer to Item 8, Note 8 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Reserve for Losses and Loss Expenses' for details of prior year reserve development by segment, line of business and accident year.

Acquisition Cost Ratio

The acquisition cost ratio increased to 22.0% in 2024 from 21.7% in 2023, primarily related to adjustments attributable to loss-sensitive features driven by improved loss performance mainly in motor and liability lines.

In addition, an increase in costs associated with changes in business mix due to increases in credit and surety, and professional lines business written in the recent periods which is associated with relatively higher acquisition cost ratios together with decreases in property and catastrophe business written in the recent periods which is associated with relatively lower acquisition cost ratios, contributed to the increase in the acquisition cost ratio to 22.0% in 2024 from 21.7% in 2023.

The acquisition cost ratio in 2024 benefited from the impact of changes in business mix on retrocessional contracts driven by increases in credit and surety, and accident and health business written in recent periods together with the decrease in catastrophe business written in recent periods. In addition, the acquisition cost ratio in 2024 benefited from a decrease in costs associated with changes in business mix within motor lines.

Underwriting-Related General and Administrative Expense Ratio

The underwriting-related general and administrative expense ratio decreased to 3.6% in 2024 from 4.9% in 2023, mainly driven by an increase in fees related to arrangements with strategic capital partners to $54 million in 2024, from $38 million in 2023, and a decrease in information technology costs, partially offset by a decrease in net premiums earned.

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NET INVESTMENT INCOME AND NET INVESTMENT GAINS (LOSSES)

Net Investment Income

Net investment income from our cash and investment portfolio by major asset class was as follows:

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(1)Pre-tax yield is calculated by dividing net investment income by the average month-end amortized cost balances for the periods indicated.

Fixed Maturities

2024 versus 2023: Net investment income in 2024 increased by $106 million or 21%, compared to 2023 due to increases in yields.

Other Investments

Other investments include multi-strategy funds, direct lending funds, private equity funds, real estate funds, other privately held investments and an indirect investment in CLO-Equities. These investments are recorded at fair value, with changes in fair value and income distributions reported in net investment income. Consequently, the pre-tax return on other investments may vary materially year over year, particularly during volatile equity and credit markets.

Net investment income from other investments was as follows:

(1)Pre-tax return on other investments is calculated by dividing total net investment income from other investments by the average month-end fair value balances held for the periods indicated.

2024 versus 2023: Pre-tax return on other investments in 2024 increased to 5.2%, compared to 2.1% in 2023. The increase was primarily attributable to higher returns from private equity funds and other privately held investments.

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Net Investment Gains (Losses)

Fixed maturities classified as available for sale are reported at fair value. Realized gains (losses) on fixed maturities are reported in net investment gains (losses) when these securities are sold or impaired.

Equity securities are reported at fair value. Realized gains (losses) on equity securities are also reported in net investment gains (losses) when securities are sold or impaired. In addition, changes in the fair values of equity securities are reported in net investment gains (losses).

Changes in the fair value of investment derivatives, mainly foreign exchange forward contracts are recorded in net investment gains (losses).

Net investment gains (losses) were as follows:

(1) Related to instances where we intend to sell securities, or it is more likely than not that we will be required to sell securities before their anticipated recovery.

On Sale of Investments and Net Unrealized Gains (Losses) on Equity Securities

Generally, sales of individual securities occur when there are changes in the relative value, credit quality, or duration of a particular issue. We may also sell securities to re-balance our investment portfolio in order to change exposure to particular asset classes or sectors.

2024 versus 2023: Net investment losses in 2024 were $139 million compared to net investment losses of $75 million in 2023. Net investment losses reported in 2024 mainly reflected net realized losses on the sale of corporate debt, Agency RMBS and U.S. government, partially offset by net realized and unrealized gains on equity securities.

Net investment losses reported in 2023 mainly reflected net realized losses on the sale of corporate debt, U.S. government and Non-Agency CMBS, partially offset by net unrealized gains on equity securities.

(Increase) Decrease in Allowance for Expected Credit Losses, Fixed Maturities, Available for Sale

2024 versus 2023: The allowance for expected credit losses decreased by $7 million in 2024 compared to $1 million in 2023, primarily related to the sale of securities. Refer to Item 8, Note 5(i) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Investments'.

(Increase) Decrease in Allowance for Expected Credit Losses, Mortgage Loans

2024 versus 2023: The allowance for expected credit losses increased by $17 million in 2024 compared to $6 million in 2023, primarily related to commercial mortgage loans exposed to the office sector. Refer to Item 8, Note 5(d) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Investments'.

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Impairment Losses

The impairment losses (refer to 'Critical Accounting Estimates – Impairment losses' for further details) recognized in net income were as follows:

2024 versus 2023: Impairment losses in 2024 were $nil compared to impairment losses of $13 million in 2023. The impairment losses in 2023 were principally due to impairments of non-investment grade corporate debt securities that we intended to sell or where we determined that it was more likely than not that we were required to sell securities before their anticipated recovery.

Change in Fair Value of Investment Derivatives

We economically hedge foreign exchange exposure with derivative contracts.

During 2024, foreign exchange hedges resulted in $2 million of net gains which primarily related to securities denominated in pound sterling and euro which experienced volatility during 2024.

During 2023, foreign exchange hedges resulted in $1 million of net losses which primarily related to securities denominated in pound sterling and euro which experienced volatility during 2023.

Our derivative instruments are not designated as hedges. Therefore, net unrealized gains (losses) on the hedged securities were recorded in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss) in total shareholders’ equity.

Total Return

Our investment strategy is to take a long-term view by actively managing our investment portfolio to maximize total return within certain guidelines and constraints. In assessing returns under this approach, we include net investment income, net investment gains (losses), the change in unrealized gains (losses) on fixed maturities, and interest in income (loss) of equity method investments generated by our investment portfolio.

Total return on cash and investments was as follows:

(1)Change in net unrealized gains (losses) on fixed maturities is calculated by taking net unrealized gains (losses) at year end less net unrealized gains (losses) at the prior year end.

(2)The average cash and investments balance is the average of the monthly fair value balances.

(3)Pre-tax total return on cash and investments excluding foreign exchange movements is a non-GAAP financial measure as defined in Item 10(e) of SEC Regulation S-K. The reconciliation to pre-tax total return on cash and investments, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, included foreign exchange (losses) gains of $(63) million, $51 million and $(110) million for the years ended December 31, 2024, 2023 and 2022, respectively.

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OTHER EXPENSES (REVENUES), NET

The following table provides a summary of other expenses (revenues), net:

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Corporate Expenses

Corporate expenses include holding company costs necessary to support our worldwide insurance and reinsurance operations and costs associated with operating as a publicly-traded company. As a percentage of net premiums earned, corporate expenses decreased to 2.4% in 2024 from 2.6% in 2023.

The decrease in corporate expenses in 2024 was mainly driven by decreases in executive-related compensation costs associated with the transition in our senior leadership and personnel costs, partially offset by increases in professional fees and information technology costs.

Foreign Exchange Losses (Gains)

Foreign exchange gains in 2024 were primarily related to the impact of the strengthening of the U.S. dollar on the remeasurement of net insurance-related liabilities denominated in euro and Canadian dollar, partially offset by the weakening of the U.S. dollar on the remeasurement of net insurance-related liabilities denominated in pound sterling.

Foreign exchange losses in 2023 were primarily related to the impact of the weakening of the U.S. dollar on the remeasurement of net insurance-related liabilities denominated in pound sterling, euro and Canadian dollar.

Interest Expense and Financing Costs

Interest expense and financing costs are related to interest due on the senior unsecured notes, junior subordinated notes and the Federal Home Loan advances ("FHLB advances") received in 2024 and 2023.

Interest expense and financing costs decreased by $1 million in 2024, compared to 2023, due to the repayment of FHLB advances in 2024.

Income Tax Expense (Benefit)

Income tax expense (benefit) primarily results from income (loss) generated by our foreign operations in the U.S. and Europe. Our effective tax rate, which is calculated as income tax expense (benefit) divided by income (loss) before tax including interest in income (loss) of equity method investments, was (5.4%), 6.5%, and 9.0% in 2024, 2023, and 2022, respectively. This effective rate can vary between years depending on the distribution of net income (loss) among tax jurisdictions, as well as other factors.

The tax benefit of $56 million in 2024 was principally due to the recognition of an income tax benefit of $177 million related to a future Bermuda corporate income tax rate of 15%, pursuant to the Corporate Income Tax Act 2023 and adjustments related to certain deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities that are no longer required, partially offset by pre-tax income in our U.S., U.K. and European operations.

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In 2024, the valuation allowance decreased by $19 million. The net gain incurred by AXIS Re SE, the Irish reinsurance company, resulted in the release of a valuation allowance of $13 million against the net deferred tax assets of AXIS Re SE and AXIS Re Europe, the Swiss branch of the Irish reinsurance company, of which $8 million was released to net income (loss) and $5 million was released in other comprehensive income (loss). A valuation allowance of $7 million was also released against foreign tax credits held by AXIS Specialty Europe SE.

At December 31, 2024, the U.S. operations had a deferred tax asset of $19 million for the unrealized losses on its fixed maturities that were recorded in other comprehensive income (loss). We examined the need for a valuation allowance and after considering all positive and negative evidence concluded a valuation allowance against its net unrealized investment losses in the U.S was not required.

At December 31, 2024, the Bermuda operations had a deferred tax asset of $17 million for the unrealized losses on its fixed maturities that were recorded in other comprehensive income (loss). We examined the need for a valuation allowance and after considering all positive and negative evidence concluded a valuation allowance against its net unrealized investment losses in Bermuda was not required.

The tax expense of $26 million in 2023 was principally due to pre-tax income in our U.K. and European insurance operations, partially offset by the recognition of a tax benefit in Bermuda on unrealized investment losses included in other comprehensive income (loss) due to the enactment of corporate income tax that will take effect in 2025, and pre-tax losses in our U.S. operations.

In 2023, the valuation allowance decreased by $21 million. The net gain incurred by AXIS Re SE, the Irish reinsurance company, resulted in the release of a valuation allowance of $25 million against the net deferred tax assets of AXIS Re SE and AXIS Re Europe, the Swiss branch of the Irish reinsurance company, of which $12 million was released in net income (loss) and $13 million was released to other comprehensive income (loss). A valuation allowance of $2 million was also released against U.S. foreign tax credits that were utilized. A valuation allowance of $6 million was recorded against foreign tax credits held by AXIS Specialty Europe SE.

At December 31, 2023, the U.S. operations had a deferred tax asset of $41 million for the unrealized losses on its fixed maturities that were recorded in other comprehensive income (loss). We examined the need for a valuation allowance and after considering all positive and negative evidence concluded a valuation allowance against its net unrealized investment losses in the U.S was not required.

At December 31, 2023, the Bermuda operations had a deferred tax asset of $13 million for the unrealized losses on its fixed maturities that were recorded in other comprehensive income (loss). We examined the need for a valuation allowance and after considering all positive and negative evidence concluded a valuation allowance against its net unrealized investment losses in Bermuda was not required.

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FINANCIAL MEASURES

We believe that the following financial indicators are important in evaluating performance and measuring the overall growth in value generated for common shareholders:

(1)    Return on average common equity ("ROACE") is calculated by dividing net income (loss) available (attributable) to common shareholders for the year by the average common shareholders' equity determined using the common shareholders' equity balances at the beginning and end of the year.

(2)    Operating return on average common equity ("operating ROACE"), is a non-GAAP financial measure as defined in Item 10(e) of SEC Regulation S-K. The reconciliation to the most comparable GAAP financial measure, ROACE, and a discussion of the rationale for its presentation is provided in 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Non-GAAP Financial Measures Reconciliation'.

(3)    Book value per diluted common share represents common shareholders’ equity divided by the number of diluted common share outstanding, determined using the treasury stock method. Cash-settled restricted stock units are excluded.

Return on Average Common Equity

Our objective is to generate superior returns on capital that appropriately reward common shareholders for the risks we assume and to grow revenue only when we expect the returns will meet or exceed our requirements. We recognize that the nature of underwriting cycles and the frequency or severity of large loss events in any one year may challenge the ability to achieve a profitability target in any specific period.

ROACE reflects the impact of net income (loss) available (attributable) to common shareholders, including net investment gains (losses), foreign exchange losses (gains), reorganization expenses, interest in income (loss) of equity method investments and Bermuda net deferred tax asset.

The increase in ROACE in 2024, compared to 2023, was primarily driven by increases in underwriting income and net investment income, foreign exchange gains, an income tax benefit and an increase in interest in income of equity method investments, partially offset by an increase in average common shareholders' equity and an increase in net investment losses.

Operating ROACE excludes the impact of net investment gains (losses), foreign exchange losses (gains), reorganization expenses, interest in income (loss) of equity method investments and Bermuda net deferred tax asset.

The increase in operating ROACE in 2024, compared to 2023, was primarily driven by increases in underwriting income and net investment income and an income tax benefit, partially offset by an increase in average common shareholders' equity.

Book Value per Diluted Common Share

We consider book value per diluted common share to be an appropriate measure of returns to common shareholders, as we believe growth in book value on a diluted basis will ultimately translate into appreciation of our stock price.

In 2024, book value per diluted common share increased by 21%, driven by net income for the year, and net unrealized investment gains reported in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss), partially offset by common dividends declared.

In 2023, book value per diluted common share increased by 15%, driven by net income for the year, and net unrealized investment gains reported in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss), partially offset by common dividends declared.

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Cash Dividends Declared per Common Share

We believe in returning excess capital to shareholders by way of dividends. Accordingly, dividend policy is an integral part of the value we create for shareholders. Our Board of Directors has approved quarterly common share dividends for twenty one consecutive years.

Book Value per Diluted Common Share Adjusted for Dividends

Taken together, we believe that growth in book value per diluted common share and common share dividends declared represent the total value created for common shareholders. As companies in the insurance industry have differing dividend payout policies, we believe that investors use the book value per diluted common share adjusted for dividends metric to measure comparable performance across the industry.

In 2024, the increase in total value of $12.97, or 24%, was driven by net income for the year, and net unrealized investment gains reported in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss).

In 2023, the increase in total value of $8.87, or 19%, was driven by net income for the year, and net unrealized investment gains reported in accumulated other comprehensive income (loss).

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NON-GAAP FINANCIAL MEASURES RECONCILIATION

(1)Net deferred tax benefit due to the recognition of deferred tax assets net of deferred tax liabilities related to a future Bermuda corporate income tax rate of 15%, pursuant to the Corporate Income Tax Act 2023.

(2)Tax expense (benefit) associated with the adjustments to net income (loss) available (attributable) to common shareholders. Tax impact is estimated by applying the statutory rates of applicable jurisdictions.

(3)Refer to Item 8, Note 14 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Earnings Per Common Share' for further details.

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Rationale for the Use of Non-GAAP Financial Measures

We present our results of operations in a way we believe will be meaningful and useful to investors, analysts, rating agencies and others who use our financial information to evaluate our performance. Some of the measurements we use are considered non-GAAP financial measures under SEC rules and regulations. In this Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations ("MD&A"), we present underwriting-related general and administrative expenses, consolidated underwriting income (loss), current accident year loss ratio, catastrophe and weather-related losses ratio, current accident year loss ratio, excluding catastrophe and weather-related losses, operating income (loss) (in total and on a per share basis), operating return on average common equity ("operating ROACE"), amounts presented on a constant currency basis and pre-tax total return on cash and investments excluding foreign exchange movements, which are non-GAAP financial measures as defined in Item 10(e) of SEC Regulation S-K. We believe that these non-GAAP financial measures, which may be defined and calculated differently by other companies, help explain and enhance the understanding of our results of operations. However, these measures should not be viewed as a substitute for those determined in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America ("U.S. GAAP").

Underwriting-Related General and Administrative Expenses

Underwriting-related general and administrative expenses include those general and administrative expenses that are incremental and/or directly attributable to our underwriting operations. While this measure is presented in Item 8, Note 3 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Segment Information', it is considered a non-GAAP financial measure when presented elsewhere on a consolidated basis.

Corporate expenses include holding company costs necessary to support our worldwide insurance and reinsurance operations and costs associated with operating as a publicly-traded company. As these costs are not incremental and/or directly attributable to our underwriting operations, these costs are excluded from underwriting-related general and administrative expenses, and therefore, consolidated underwriting income (loss). General and administrative expenses, the most comparable GAAP financial measure to underwriting-related general and administrative expenses, also includes corporate expenses.

The reconciliation of underwriting-related general and administrative expenses to general and administrative expenses, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, is presented in 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Consolidated Results of Operations'.

Consolidated Underwriting Income (Loss)

Consolidated underwriting income (loss) is a pre-tax measure of underwriting profitability that takes into account net premiums earned and other insurance related income (loss) as revenues and net losses and loss expenses, acquisition costs and underwriting-related general and administrative expenses as expenses. While this measure is presented in Item 8, Note 3 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Segment Information', it is considered a non-GAAP financial measure when presented elsewhere on a consolidated basis.

We evaluate our underwriting results separately from the performance of our investment portfolio. As a result, we believe it is appropriate to exclude net investment income and net investment gains (losses) from our underwriting profitability measure.

Foreign exchange losses (gains) in our consolidated statements of operations primarily relate to the impact of foreign exchange rate movements on our net insurance-related liabilities. However, we manage our investment portfolio in such a way that unrealized and realized foreign exchange losses (gains) on our investment portfolio, including unrealized foreign exchange losses (gains) on our equity securities, and foreign exchange losses (gains) realized on the sale of our available for sale investments and equity securities recognized in net investment gains (losses), and unrealized foreign exchange losses (gains) on our available for sale investments in other comprehensive income (loss), generally offset a large portion of the foreign exchange losses (gains) arising from our underwriting portfolio, thereby minimizing the impact of foreign exchange rate movements on total shareholders' equity. As a result, we believe that foreign exchange losses (gains) in our consolidated statements of operations in isolation are not a meaningful contributor to our underwriting performance. Therefore, foreign exchange losses (gains) are excluded from consolidated underwriting income (loss).

Interest expense and financing costs primarily relate to interest payable on our debt and Federal Home Loan Bank advances. As these expenses are not incremental and/or directly attributable to our underwriting operations, these expenses are excluded from underwriting-related general and administrative expenses and, therefore, consolidated underwriting income (loss).

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Reorganization expenses in 2024 primarily related to severance costs attributable to our "How We Work" program which is focused on simplifying our operating structure. Reorganization expenses in 2023 primarily related to impairments of computer software assets and severance costs attributable to our "How We Work" program. Reorganization expenses in 2022 primarily related to severance costs and impairments of computer software assets mainly attributable to our exit from catastrophe and property reinsurance lines of business which was part of an overall approach to reduce our exposure to volatile catastrophe risk. Reorganization expenses are primarily driven by business decisions, the nature and timing of which are not related to the underwriting process. Therefore, these expenses are excluded from consolidated underwriting income (loss).

Amortization of intangible assets arose from business decisions, the nature and timing of which are not related to the underwriting process. Therefore, these expenses are excluded from consolidated underwriting income (loss).

We believe that the presentation of underwriting-related general and administrative expenses and consolidated underwriting income (loss) provides investors with an enhanced understanding of our results of operations, by highlighting the underlying pre-tax profitability of our underwriting activities. The reconciliation of consolidated underwriting income (loss) to net income (loss), the most comparable GAAP financial measure, is presented in 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Consolidated Results of Operations'.

Current Accident Year Loss Ratio

Current accident year loss ratio represents net losses and loss expenses ratio exclusive of net favorable (adverse) prior year reserve development. We believe that the presentation of current accident year loss ratio provides investors with an enhanced understanding of our results of operations by highlighting net losses and loss expenses associated with our underwriting activities excluding the impact of volatile prior year reserve development. The reconciliation of current accident year loss ratio to net losses and loss expenses ratio, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, is presented in 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Consolidated Results of Operations'.

Catastrophe and Weather-Related Losses Ratio and Current Accident Year Loss Ratio, excluding Catastrophe and Weather-Related Losses

Catastrophe and weather-related losses ratio represents net losses and loss expenses ratio associated with natural disasters, man-made catastrophes, other catastrophe events and other weather-related events exclusive of net favorable (adverse) prior year reserve development.

Current accident year loss ratio, excluding catastrophe and weather-related losses represents net losses and loss expenses ratio exclusive of net favorable (adverse) prior year reserve development and net losses and loss expenses associated with natural disasters, man-made catastrophes, other catastrophe events and other weather-related events.

We believe that the presentation of these ratios that separately identify net losses and loss expenses associated with catastrophe and weather-related events provide investors with an enhanced understanding of our results of operations due to the inherently unpredictable nature of the occurrence of these events, the potential magnitude of these losses and the complexity that affects our ability to accurately estimate ultimate losses associated with these events.

The reconciliation of catastrophe and weather-related losses ratio and current accident year loss ratio, excluding catastrophe and weather-related losses to net losses and loss expenses ratio, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, is presented in 'Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Consolidated Results of Operations'.

Operating Income (Loss)

Operating income (loss) represents after-tax operational results exclusive of net investment gains (losses), foreign exchange losses (gains), reorganization expenses and interest in income (loss) of equity method investments and Bermuda net deferred tax asset.

Although the investment of premiums to generate income and investment gains (losses) is an integral part of our operations, the determination to realize investment gains (losses) is independent of the underwriting process and is heavily influenced by the availability of market opportunities. Furthermore, many users believe that the timing of the realization of investment gains (losses) is somewhat opportunistic for many companies.

Foreign exchange losses (gains) in our consolidated statements of operations primarily relate to the impact of foreign exchange rate movements on net insurance-related liabilities. However, we manage our investment portfolio in such a way

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that unrealized and realized foreign exchange losses (gains) on our investment portfolio, including unrealized foreign exchange losses (gains) on our equity securities and foreign exchange losses (gains) realized on the sale of our available for sale investments and equity securities recognized in net investment gains (losses) and unrealized foreign exchange losses (gains) on our available for sale investments in other comprehensive income (loss), generally offset a large portion of the foreign exchange losses (gains) arising from our underwriting portfolio, thereby minimizing the impact of foreign exchange rate movements on total shareholders' equity. As a result, we believe that foreign exchange losses (gains) in our consolidated statements of operations in isolation are not a meaningful contributor to the performance of our business. Therefore, foreign exchange losses (gains) are excluded from operating income (loss).

Reorganization expenses in 2024 primarily related to severance costs attributable to our "How We Work" program which is focused on simplifying our operating structure. Reorganization expenses in 2023 primarily related to impairments of computer software assets and severance costs attributable to our "How We Work" program. Reorganization expenses in 2022 primarily related to severance costs and impairments of computer software assets mainly attributable to our exit from catastrophe and property reinsurance lines of business which was part of an overall approach to reduce our exposure to volatile catastrophe risk. Reorganization expenses are primarily driven by business decisions, the nature and timing of which are not related to the underwriting process. Therefore, these expenses are excluded from operating income (loss).

Interest in income (loss) of equity method investments is primarily driven by business decisions, the nature and timing of which are not related to the underwriting process. Therefore, this income (loss) is excluded from operating income (loss).

Bermuda net deferred tax asset is due to the recognition of deferred tax assets net of deferred tax liabilities related to a future Bermuda corporate income tax rate of 15%, pursuant to the Corporate Income Tax Act 2023 effective for fiscal years beginning on or after January 1, 2025. The Bermuda net deferred tax asset is not related to the underwriting process. Therefore, this income is excluded from operating income (loss).

Certain users of our financial statements evaluate performance exclusive of after-tax net investment gains (losses), foreign exchange losses (gains), reorganization expenses, and interest in income (loss) of equity method investments and Bermuda net deferred tax asset in order to understand the profitability of recurring sources of income.

We believe that showing net income (loss) available (attributable) to common shareholders exclusive of after-tax net investment gains (losses), foreign exchange losses (gains), reorganization expenses, interest in income (loss) of equity method investments and Bermuda net deferred tax asset reflects the underlying fundamentals of our business. In addition, we believe that this presentation enables investors and other users of our financial information to analyze performance in a manner similar to how our management analyzes the underlying business performance. We also believe this measure follows industry practice and, therefore, facilitates comparison of our performance with our peer group. We believe that equity analysts and certain rating agencies that follow us, and the insurance industry as a whole, generally exclude these items from their analyses for the same reasons. The reconciliation of operating income (loss) to net income (loss) available (attributable) to common shareholders, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, is presented above.

We also present operating income (loss) per diluted common share and operating ROACE, which are derived from the operating income (loss) measure and are reconciled above to the most comparable GAAP financial measures, earnings (loss) per diluted common share and return on average common equity ("ROACE"), respectively.

Constant Currency Basis

We present gross premiums written and net premiums earned on a constant currency basis in this MD&A. The amounts presented on a constant currency basis are calculated by applying the average foreign exchange rate from the current year to the prior year amounts. We believe this presentation enables investors and other users of our financial information to analyze growth in gross premiums written and net premiums earned on a constant basis. The reconciliation to gross premiums written and net premiums earned on a GAAP basis is presented in 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Results by Segment'.

Pre-Tax Total Return on Cash and Investments excluding Foreign Exchange Movements

Pre-tax total return on cash and investments excluding foreign exchange movements measures net investment income (loss), net investments gains (losses), interest in income (loss) of equity method investments, and change in unrealized gains (losses) generated by average cash and investment balances. We believe this presentation enables investors and other users of our financial information to analyze the performance of our investment portfolio. The reconciliation of pre-tax total return on cash and investments excluding foreign exchange movements to pre-tax total return on cash and investments, the most comparable GAAP financial measure, is presented in 'Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations – Net Investment Income and Net Investment Gains (Losses)'.

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CASH AND INVESTMENTS

Details of cash and investments are as follows:

(1)Presented at net carrying value of $443 million (2023: $686 million) in the consolidated balance sheets.

(2)Includes restricted cash and cash equivalents of $920 million and $431 million for 2024 and 2023, respectively.

Overview

The fair value of total investments decreased by $215 million in 2024, as market value gains, reinvestment of interest income and cashflows from operations were offset by an increase in cash and cash equivalents.

Cash and Cash equivalents

At December 31, 2024, cash and cash equivalents were $3.1 billion compared to $1.4 billion at December 31, 2023, an increase of $1.7 billion, in anticipation of premiums to be paid for the LPT Agreement (refer to '2024 Financial, Highlights'), on receipt of regulatory approval.

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An analysis of our investment portfolio by asset class is detailed below:

Fixed Maturities

Details of our fixed maturities portfolio are as follows:

(1)Includes bonds issued by states, municipalities, and political subdivisions.

(2)Includes U.S. government-sponsored agencies, residential mortgage-backed securities ("RMBS") and commercial mortgage-backed securities ("CMBS").

(3)Non-investment grade and non-rated securities.

At December 31, 2024, fixed maturities had a weighted average credit rating of A+ (2023: AA-), a book yield of 4.5% (2023: 4.2%), and an average duration of 2.8 years (2023: 3.0 years).

At December 31, 2024, fixed maturities together with short-term investments, and cash and cash equivalents (i.e., total investments of $15.9 billion) had a weighted average credit rating of AA- (2023: AA-) and an average duration of 2.5 years (2023: 2.7 years).

Our methodology for assigning credit ratings to fixed maturities is in line with the methodology used for the Barclays U.S. Aggregate Bond index. This methodology uses the midpoint of Standard & Poor's (S&P), Moody's and Fitch ratings. When ratings from only two of these agencies are available, the lower rating is used. When only one agency rates a security, that rating is used. When ratings provided by S&P, Moody's and Fitch are not available, ratings from other nationally recognized agencies are used.

To calculate the weighted average credit rating for fixed maturities, we assign points to each rating with the highest points assigned to the highest rating (AAA) and the lowest points assigned to the lowest rating (D) and then calculate the weighted average based on the fair values of the individual securities. Securities that are not rated are excluded from weighted average calculations. At December 31, 2024, the fair value of fixed maturities not rated was $3 million (2023: $17 million).

In addition to managing credit risk exposure within our fixed maturities portfolio we also monitor the aggregation of country risk exposure on a group-wide basis. Country risk exposure is the risk that events in a country, such as currency crises, regulatory changes and other political events, will adversely affect the ability of obligors in the country to honor their obligations. For corporate debt and structured securities, we measure the country of risk exposure based on a number of factors, including but not limited to location of management, principal operations and country of revenues.

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An analysis of our fixed maturities portfolio by major asset classes is detailed below:

Non-U.S. Government

Non-U.S. government securities include bonds issued by non-U.S. governments and their agencies along with supranational organizations (collectively also known as sovereign debt securities).

Details of exposures to governments in the eurozone and other non-U.S. government concentrations by fair value are as follows:

(1)Includes supranationals only in the eurozone.

At December 31, 2024, net unrealized losses on non-U.S. government securities were $23 million (2023: $6 million) which included gross unrealized foreign exchange losses of $19 million (2023: $6 million), mainly related to U.K. government bonds.

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Corporate Debt

Corporate debt securities consist primarily of investment grade debt of a wide variety of corporate issuers and industries.

Details of our corporate debt securities portfolio by sector are as follows:

At December 31, 2024, our non-investment grade portfolio had a fair value of $1,480 million (2023: $1,023 million), a weighted average credit rating of B+ (2023: B+) and duration of 2.2 years (2023: 2.4 years). At December 31, 2024, our corporate debt portfolio, including non-investment grade securities, had a duration of 3.2 years (2023: 3.4 years).

Mortgage-Backed Securities

Details of the fair values of our RMBS and CMBS portfolios by credit rating are as follows:

(1)Non-investment grade securities and non-rated securities.

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Residential MBS

Agency RMBS consist of bonds issued by the Federal National Mortgage Association, the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation and the Government National Mortgage Association, which are primarily AA+ rated and are supported by loans which are diversified across geographical areas. At December 31, 2024, agency RMBS had an average duration of 5.2 years (2023: 5.2 years).

Non-agency RMBS mainly include investment grade bonds originated by non-agencies. At December 31, 2024, 98% (2023: 98%) of our non-agency RMBS were rated AA or better. At December 31, 2024, non-agency RMBS had an average duration of 4.3 years (2023: 4.0 years) and weighted average life of 5.4 years (2023: 5.6 years).

Commercial MBS

CMBS mainly include investment grade bonds originated by non-agencies. At December 31, 2024, 99% (2023: 98%) of our CMBS were rated AA or better. At December 31, 2024, the weighted average estimated subordination percentage of the portfolio was 34% (2023: 37%), which represents the current weighted average estimated percentage of the capital structure subordinated to the investment holding that is available to absorb losses before the security incurs the first dollar loss of principal. At December 31, 2024, CMBS had an average duration of 2.7 years (2023: 2.2 years) and weighted average life of 3.7 years (2023: 2.8 years).

Asset-Backed Securities

ABS mainly include investment grade bonds backed by pools of loans with a variety of underlying collateral, including auto loans, student loans, credit card receivables and collateralized loan obligations ("CLOs") originated by a variety of financial institutions.

Details of the fair value of our ABS portfolio by underlying collateral and credit rating are as follows:

At December 31, 2024, the average duration our ABS portfolio was 1.0 year (2023: 0.6 years) and the weighted average life was 3.1 years (2023: 3.0 years).

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Municipals

Municipals comprise revenue bonds and general obligation bonds issued by U.S. domiciled state and municipal entities and are primarily held in the taxable portfolios of our U.S. subsidiaries.

At December 31, 2024, our municipals had a fair value of $111 million (2023: $158 million), a weighted average credit rating of AA- (2023: AA-) and duration of 3.3 years (2023: 3.9 years).

Gross Unrealized Losses

At December 31, 2024, the gross unrealized losses on our fixed maturities, available for sale portfolio were $311 million (2023: $481 million).

Investment grade fixed maturities, available for sale

The severity of the unrealized loss position as a percentage of amortized cost for all investment grade fixed maturities in an unrealized loss position including any impact of foreign exchange losses (gains) was as follows:

The decrease in gross unrealized losses on investment grade fixed maturities primarily reflected the realization of losses throughout the year.

Non-investment grade fixed maturities, available for sale

The severity of the unrealized loss position as a percentage of amortized cost for all non-investment grade fixed maturities in an unrealized loss position including any impact of foreign exchange losses (gains) was as follows:

The increase in gross unrealized losses on non-investment grade fixed maturities was a result of an increase in non-investment grade fixed income holdings.

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Equity Securities

At December 31, 2024, net unrealized gains on equity securities were $59 million (2023: $45 million). The increase was driven by the rally in global equity markets.

Mortgage Loans

During 2024, investment in commercial mortgage loans decreased to $506 million from $610 million, a decrease of $104 million. The commercial mortgage loans are high quality, and collateralized by a variety of commercial properties and diversified geographically throughout the U.S. and by property type to reduce the risk of concentration. At December 31, 2024, the allowance for expected credit loss of $23 million (2023: $6 million) was primarily related to commercial properties exposed to the office sector.

Other Investments

Details of our other investments portfolio are as follows:

Refer to Item 8, Note 5(e) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Investments'.

Equity Method Investments

Our ownership interests in Harrington Reinsurance Holdings Limited ("Harrington") and Monarch Point Re (ISAC) Ltd. and Monarch Point Re (ISA 2023) Ltd. (collectively "Monarch Point Re") are reported in interest in income (loss) of equity method investments.

Interest in income (loss) of equity method investments was $18 million in 2024 compared to $4 million in 2023, an increase of $14 million, principally attributable to net investment income and underwriting income related to these ownership interests.

Restricted Assets

Refer to Item 8, Note 5(j) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Investments'.

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LIQUIDITY AND CAPITAL RESOURCES

Liquidity

Liquidity is a measure of a company’s ability to generate cash flows sufficient to meet the short-term and long-term cash requirements of its business operations. We manage liquidity at the holding company and operating subsidiary level.

Holding Company

As a holding company, AXIS Capital has no operations of its own and its assets consist primarily of investments in its subsidiaries. Accordingly, AXIS Capital’s future cash flows depend on the availability of dividends or other statutorily permissible distributions, such as returns of capital, from its subsidiaries.

The ability to pay such dividends and/or distributions is limited by the applicable laws and regulations of the various countries and states in which AXIS Capital’s subsidiaries operate (refer to Item 8, Note 22 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Statutory Financial Information' for further details), as well as the need to maintain capital levels to adequately support insurance and reinsurance operations, and to preserve financial strength ratings issued by independent rating agencies.

During 2024, AXIS Capital received $459 million (2023: $375 million) of distributions from its subsidiaries. AXIS Capital’s primary uses of funds are dividend payments to common and preferred shareholders, interest and principal payments on debt, capital investments in subsidiaries, and payment of corporate operating expenses. We believe the dividend/distribution capacity of AXIS Capital’s subsidiaries, that was $1.4 billion at December 31, 2024 (2023: $0.9 billion) will provide AXIS Capital with sufficient liquidity for the foreseeable future.

Operating Subsidiaries

AXIS Capital’s operating subsidiaries primarily derive cash from the net inflow of premiums less claim payments related to underwriting activities and from net investment income. Historically, these cash receipts have been sufficient to fund the operating expenses of these subsidiaries, as well as to fund dividend payments to AXIS Capital. The subsidiaries’ remaining cash flows are generally invested in our investment portfolio and have also been used to fund common share repurchases in recent years.

The insurance and reinsurance business of our operating subsidiaries inherently provide liquidity, as premiums are received in advance (sometimes substantially in advance) of the time losses are paid. However, the amount of cash required to fund loss payments can fluctuate significantly from period to period, due to the low frequency/high severity nature of certain types of business we write.

Consolidated cash flows from operating, investing and financing activities in the last three years were as follows:

(1) Refer to Item 8, 'Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows' for further details.

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Operating activities

•Net cash provided by operating activities was $1,845 million in 2024 compared to $1,256 million in 2023. Cash inflows from insurance and reinsurance operations typically include premiums, net of acquisition costs, and reinsurance recoverables. Cash outflows principally include payments of losses and loss expenses, payments of premiums to reinsurers and operating expenses. Cash provided by operating activities can fluctuate due to timing differences between the collection of premiums and reinsurance recoverables and the payment of losses and loss expenses, and the payment of premiums to reinsurers.

•Operating cash inflows increased in 2024 compared to 2023, primarily attributable to increases in premiums received, reinsurance recoverables received, and interest and dividends received from our investment portfolio together with a decrease in payments of premiums to reinsurers partially offset by an increase in payments of losses and loss expenses.

Investing activities

•Investing cash inflows in 2024 were principally related to the net proceeds from the sale and redemption of fixed maturities of $281 million, unsettled payable for reverse repurchase agreements included in cash and cash equivalents of $247 million, net proceeds from the sales of other investments of $66 million and equity securities of $40 million, and the net proceeds from the sales and repayment of mortgage loans of $81 million, partially offset by net purchases of short-term investments of $204 million and loan advances made to third party reinsurers of $199 million.

•Investing cash outflows in 2023 were principally related to the net purchases of fixed maturities of $554 million, equity securities of $34 million, equity method investments of $22 million, loan advances made to third party reinsurers of $350 million and purchases of other assets of $31 million, partially offset by the net proceeds from the sale of other investments of $67 million and net proceeds from the sales and redemptions/repayments of short-term investments of $56 million and mortgage loans of $12 million.

Financing activities

•Financing cash outflows in 2024 were principally due to the repurchase of common shares of $216 million, dividends paid to common and preferred shareholders of $182 million, and the repayment of the Federal Home Loan Bank advances of $19 million.

•Financing cash outflows in 2023 were principally due to dividends paid to common and preferred shareholders of $184 million, and the repurchase of common shares of $24 million, partially offset by the receipt of the Federal Home Loan Bank advances of $5 million.

•The declaration and payment of future dividends and share repurchases is at the discretion of our Board of Directors and will depend on many factors including, but not limited to, our net income, financial condition, business needs, capital and surplus requirements of our operating subsidiaries and regulatory and contractual restrictions, including those detailed in our credit facilities (refer to 'Capital Resources – Share Repurchases' below for further details).

We have generated positive operating cash flows in all years since 2003, with the exception of 2009 which was impacted by the global financial crisis. These positive cash flows were generated even with the recognition of significant catastrophe and weather-related losses including the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 and 2021.

Net losses and loss expenses, gross of reinstatement premiums, included estimates of ultimate losses for catastrophe and weather-related losses of $226 million in 2024, $138 million in 2023 and $404 million in 2022. There remains significant uncertainty associated with estimates of ultimate losses for certain of these events (refer to 'Underwriting Results – Insurance segment – Current Accident Year Loss' and 'Underwriting Results – Reinsurance segment – Current Accident Year Loss Ratio' for further details), as well as the timing of the associated cash outflows.

Should claim payment obligations accelerate beyond our ability to fund payments from operating cash flows, we would utilize cash and cash equivalent balances and/or liquidate a portion of our investment portfolio.

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For context, at January 1, 2024, our largest 1-in-250 year return period, single occurrence, single-zone modeled probable maximum loss (Southeast U.S. Hurricane) was approximately $228 million, net of reinsurance. Claim payments pertaining to such an event would be paid out over a period spanning many months. Our internal risk tolerance framework aims to limit the loss of capital due to a single event and the loss of capital that would occur from multiple but perhaps smaller events, in any year (refer to Item 1 'Risk and Capital Management' for further details).

Our investment portfolio is heavily weighted towards conservative, high quality and highly liquid securities. We expect that, if necessary, cash and invested assets of approximately $15.2 billion at December 31, 2024 (2023 $13.6 billion) could be available in one to three business days under normal market conditions. Of this amount, $6.9 billion (2023 $5.3 billion) related to restricted assets, which primarily support our obligations in regulatory jurisdictions where we operate as a non-admitted carrier (refer to Item 8, Note 5(j) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Investments' for further details).

We expect that cash flows generated from operations, combined with the liquidity provided by our investment portfolio, to be sufficient to cover required cash outflows and other contractual commitments through the foreseeable future (refer to 'Contractual Obligations and Commitments' below for further details).

Capital Resources

In addition to common equity, we have utilized other external sources of financing, including debt, preferred shares, and letter of credit facilities to support our business operations. We believe that we hold sufficient capital to allow us to take advantage of market opportunities and to maintain our financial strength ratings, as well as to comply with various local statutory regulations. We monitor capital adequacy on a regular basis and adjust our capital base according to the needs of our business (refer to Item 1 'Risk and Capital Management' for further details).

The following table summarizes consolidated capital:

We finance our operations with a combination of debt and equity capital. The debt to total capital ratio provides an indication of our capital structure, along with some insight into our financial strength.

We believe that our financial flexibility remains strong. Adjustments are made if developments occur that are different from previous expectations.

Debt

Debt represents the 5.150% Senior Notes issued in 2014, which will mature in 2045, the 4.000% Senior Notes issued in 2017, which will mature in 2027, the 3.900% Senior Notes issued in 2019, which will mature in 2029, and the 4.900% Junior Subordinated Notes issued in 2019, which will mature in 2040 (refer to Item 8, Note 10(a) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Debt and Financing Arrangements' for further details).

The 3.900% Senior Notes and the 4.900% Junior Subordinated Notes were issued to finance the repayment of $500 million aggregate principal amount of 5.875% Senior Notes that matured in June 2020 and to finance the redemption of Series D preferred shares on January 17, 2020 (refer to 'Preferred Shares' below for further details).

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Federal Home Loan Bank Advances

The Company's subsidiaries, AXIS Insurance Company and AXIS Surplus Insurance Company, are members of the Federal Home Loan Bank of Chicago ("FHLB").

Members may borrow from the FHLB at competitive rates subject to certain conditions. At December 31, 2024, the companies had admitted assets of approximately $3.2 billion (2023: $3.0 billion) which provides borrowing capacity of up to approximately $798 million (2023: $759 million). Conditions of membership include maintaining sufficient collateral deposits for funding, a requirement to maintain member stock at 0.4% of mortgage-related assets at December 31st of the prior year, and a requirement to purchase additional member stock of 2.0% or 4.5% of any amount borrowed (refer to Item 8, Note 11 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Federal Home Loan Bank Advances').

At December 31, 2024, the Company had borrowings under the FHLB program of $66 million (2023: $86 million). On September 11, 2024, the Company repaid borrowings under the FHLB program of $10 million, at their stated maturity. On October 31, 2024, the Company repaid borrowings under the FHLB program of $9 million, at their stated maturity.

The FHLB advances have maturities in 2025 and interest payable at interest rates between 4.5% and 5.5% (2023: 5.6% and 5.9%). For the year ended December 31, 2024, the Company incurred interest expense of $4 million (2023: $5 million). The borrowings under the FHLB program are secured by cash and investments with a fair value of $72 million (2023: $95 million).

Preferred Shares

Series E Preferred Shares

On November 7, 2016, we issued $550 million of 5.50% Series E preferred shares with a liquidation preference of $2,500 per share (equivalent to $25 per depositary share). Dividends on the Series E preferred shares are non-cumulative. To the extent declared, dividends accumulate, with respect to each dividend period, in an amount per share equal to 5.50% of the liquidation preference per annum (equivalent to $137.50 per Series E preferred share and $1.375 per depositary share). We could redeem these shares on or after November 7, 2021 at a redemption price of $2,500 per Series E preferred share (equivalent to $25 per depositary share) (refer to Item 8, Note 15 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Shareholders' Equity' for further details).

Secured Letter of Credit Facilities

We routinely enter into agreements with financial institutions to obtain secured letter of credit facilities.

These facilities are primarily used for the issuance of letters of credit, in the normal course of operations, to certain insurance and reinsurance entities that purchase reinsurance protection from us. These letters of credit allow those operations to take credit, under local insurance regulations, for reinsurance obtained in jurisdictions where AXIS Capital’s subsidiaries are not licensed or otherwise admitted as an insurer. The value of our letters of credit outstanding is driven by, among other factors, the amount of unearned premiums, development of loss reserves, the payment patterns of loss reserves, the expansion of our business and the loss experience of that business.

A portion of these facilities may also be used for liquidity purposes.

At December 31, 2024, certain of AXIS Capital’s operating subsidiaries (the "Participating Subsidiaries") had a $300 million letter of credit facility available from Citibank Europe plc ("Citibank") (the "$300 million Facility").

At December 31, 2024, letters of credit outstanding were $235 million (2023: $325 million) (refer to Item 8, Note 10 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Debt and Financing Arrangements' for further details).

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Common Equity

During the year ended December 31, 2024, common equity increased by $826 million. The following table reconciles opening and closing common equity positions:

Share Repurchases

During 2024, we repurchased 3.1 million common shares for a total of $216 million, including $200 million repurchased pursuant to our Board-authorized share repurchase program, and $16 million from employees to facilitate the satisfaction of their personal withholding tax liabilities that arise on vesting of share-settled restricted stock units granted under our 2017 Long-Term Equity Compensation Plans.

At June 30, 2024, authorization under the Company's share repurchase program approved in December 2023 was exhausted.

On May 16, 2024, the Company's Board of Directors approved a new share repurchase program for up to $300 million of the Company's common shares. The new share repurchase program is open-ended, allowing the Company to repurchase its shares from time to time in the open market or privately negotiated transactions, depending on market conditions. At December 31, 2024, we had $200 million of remaining authorization under our open-ended Board-authorized share repurchase program for common share repurchases.

Refer to Item 5 'Market for Registrant's Common Equity, Related Stockholder Matters and Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities' and Item 8, Note 15 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Shareholders' Equity' for further details.

Shelf Registrations

On November 9, 2022, we filed an unallocated universal shelf registration statement with the SEC, which became effective on filing. Pursuant to the shelf registration, we may issue an unlimited amount of equity, debt, warrants, purchase contracts or a combination of these securities. Our intent and ability to issue securities pursuant to this registration statement will depend on market conditions at the time of any proposed offering.

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Financial Strength Ratings

Operating subsidiaries

Our principal insurance and reinsurance operating subsidiaries are assigned financial strength ratings from internationally recognized rating agencies, including Standard & Poor’s, A.M. Best, and Moody’s Investors Service. These ratings are publicly announced and are available directly from the agencies, and on our website.

Financial strength ratings represent the opinions of the rating agencies on the overall financial strength of a company and its capacity to meet the obligations of its insurance and reinsurance contracts. Independent ratings are one of the important factors that establish a competitive position in insurance and reinsurance markets. The rating agencies consider many factors in determining the financial strength rating of an insurance company, including the relative level of statutory surplus necessary to support the business operations of the company. These ratings are based on factors considered by the rating agencies to be relevant to policyholders, agents and intermediaries and are not directed toward the protection of investors. Ratings are not recommendations to buy, sell or hold securities.

The following are the most recent financial strength ratings from internationally recognized agencies in relation to our principal insurance and insurance operating subsidiaries:

(1)    On July 20, 2022, Standard and Poor's revised its outlook from negative to stable due to improved underwriting performance and reduced prospective earnings volatility as a result of our exit from property and catastrophe reinsurance lines of business.

(2)    On May 31, 2022, Moody's Investors Service revised its outlook from negative to stable due to improved core underwriting profitability and reduced catastrophe risk exposure.

Non-operating holding companies

On November 17, 2023, Standard and Poor's placed AXIS Capital Holding Limited and the securities guaranteed by this non-operating holding company on CreditWatch Negative due to the potential regulatory restrictions to payments from Bermuda-based insurance and reinsurance operating companies to non-operating holding companies.

On January 29, 2024, Standard and Poor's removed AXIS Capital Holdings Limited and related securities from Negative CreditWatch and affirmed the Issuer Credit Rating of AXIS Capital Holding Company at A- (Stable). In addition, Standard & Poor's also reaffirmed the A+ Financial Strength and issuer credit ratings on all core operating subsidiaries (Stable).

The stable outlook reflects Standard and Poor's expectation that AXIS will sustain its strong competitive position supported by solid, less-volatile underwriting performance, and will maintain capital adequacy at the 99.99% (or extreme stress) level in 2023-2025.

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Contractual Obligations and Commitments

At December 31, 2024, contractual obligations and commitments by period due were:

(1)We are obligated to pay claims for specified loss events covered by the insurance and reinsurance contracts that we write. Loss payments represent our most significant future payment obligation. In contrast to our other contractual obligations, cash payments are not determinable from the terms specified within the underlying contracts. Our best estimate of reserve for losses and loss expenses is reflected in the table above. Actual amounts and timing may differ materially from our best estimate (refer to ‘Critical Accounting Estimates – Reserve for Losses and Loss Expenses’ for further details). We have not taken into account corresponding reinsurance recoverable on unpaid amounts that would be due to us.

(2)In the ordinary course of business, we renew and enter into new leases for office space that expire at various dates (refer to Item 8, Note 13 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Leases' for further details).

(3)We have $526 million of unfunded investment commitments related to our other investments portfolio, which are callable by our investment managers (refer to Item 8, Note 5(e) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Investments' and Note 12(e) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Commitment and Contingencies' for further details). In addition, we have $9 million of unfunded commitments related to our commercial mortgage loans portfolio and $94 million of unfunded commitments related to our corporate debt portfolio.

(4)Refer to Item 8, Note 10(a) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Debt and Financing Arrangements' for further details.

(5)Debt (interest payments) includes $10 million of unamortized discount and debt issuance expenses (refer to Item 8, Note 10(a) to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Debt and Financing Arrangements' for further details).

CRITICAL ACCOUNTING ESTIMATES

The consolidated financial statements include certain amounts that are inherently uncertain and judgmental in nature. As a result, we are required to make assumptions and best estimates to determine the reported values. We consider an accounting estimate to be critical if: (1) it requires that significant assumptions be made to deal with uncertainties and (2) changes in the estimate could have a material impact on our results of operations, financial condition, or liquidity.

We believe that the material items requiring such subjective and complex estimates are:

•reserves for losses and loss expenses;

•reinsurance recoverable on unpaid losses and loss expenses, including the allowance for expected credit losses;

•gross premiums written and net premiums earned;

•fair value measurements of financial assets and liabilities; and

•the allowance for credit losses associated with fixed maturities, available for sale.

Significant accounting policies are also important to understanding the consolidated financial statements (refer to Item 8, Note 2 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Basis of Presentation and Significant Accounting Policies' for further details).

We believe that the amounts included in the consolidated financial statements reflect management's best judgment. However, factors such as those described in Item 1A 'Risk Factors' could cause actual events or results to differ materially from the underlying assumptions and estimates which could lead to a material adverse impact on our results of operations, financial condition, or liquidity.

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Reserve for Losses and Loss Expenses

Overview

We believe the most significant accounting judgment we make is the estimate of reserve for losses and loss expenses ("loss reserves"). Loss reserves represent management’s estimate of the unpaid portion of our ultimate liability for losses and loss expenses ("ultimate losses") for insured and reinsured events that have occurred at or before the balance sheet date. Loss reserves reflect claims that have been reported ("case reserves") to us and claims that have been incurred but not reported ("IBNR") to us. Loss reserves represent our best estimate of what the ultimate settlement and administration of claims will cost, based on our assessment of facts and circumstances known at that particular point in time.

Loss reserves are not an exact calculation of the liability but instead are complex estimates. The process of estimating loss reserves involves a number of variables (refer to 'Selection of Reported Reserves – Management's Best Estimate' below for further details). We review estimates of loss reserves each reporting period and consider all significant facts and circumstances known at that particular point in time. As additional experience and other data become available and/or laws and legal interpretations change, we may adjust previous estimates of loss reserves. Adjustments are recognized in the period in which they are determined. Therefore, they can impact that period's underwriting results either favorably, indicating that current estimates are lower than previous estimates, or adversely, indicating that current estimates are higher than previous estimates.

Case Reserves

With respect to insurance business, we are generally notified of losses by our insureds and/or their brokers. Based on this information, our claims personnel estimate ultimate losses arising from the claim, including the cost of administering the claims settlement process. These estimates reflect the judgment of our claims personnel based on general reserving practices, the experience and knowledge of such personnel regarding the nature of the specific claim and, where appropriate, the advice of legal counsel, loss adjusters and other relevant consultants.

With respect to reinsurance business, we are generally notified of losses by ceding companies and/or their brokers. For excess of loss contracts, we are typically notified of insured losses on specific contracts and record a case reserve for the estimated ultimate liability arising from the claim. For contracts written on a proportional basis, we typically receive aggregated claims information and record a case reserve for the estimated ultimate liability arising from the claim based on that information. Proportional reinsurance contracts typically require that losses in excess of pre-defined amounts be separately notified so we can adequately evaluate them. Our claims department evaluates each specific loss notification we receive and records additional case reserves when a ceding company’s reserve for a claim is not considered adequate. We also undertake an extensive program of cedant audits, using outsourced legal and industry experience where necessary. This allows us to review cedants’ claims administration practices to ensure that reserves are consistent with exposures, adequately established, and properly reported in a timely manner.

IBNR

The estimation of IBNR is necessary due to potential development on reported claims and the time lag between when a loss event occurs and when it is actually reported, which is referred to as a reporting lag. Reporting lags may arise from a number of factors, including but not limited to the nature of the loss, the use of intermediaries and complexities in the claims adjusting process. As we do not have specific information on IBNR, it must be estimated. IBNR is calculated by deducting incurred losses (i.e., paid losses and case reserves) from management’s best estimate of ultimate losses. In contrast to case reserves, which are established at the contract level, IBNR reserves are generally estimated at an aggregate level and cannot be identified as reserves for a particular loss event or contract (refer to 'Reserving for Catastrophic Events' below for further details).

Reserving Methodology

Refer to Item 8, Note 8 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Reserve for Losses and Loss Expenses – Reserving Methodology – Sources of Information' for a description of the collection and analysis of data used in our quarterly loss reserving process.

Refer to Item 8, Note 8 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Reserve for Losses and Loss Expenses – Reserving Methodology – Actuarial Analysis' for a description of the reserve estimation methods, Expected Loss Ratio Method ("ELR Method"), Loss Development Method (also referred to as the "Chain Ladder Method" or "Link Ratio Method") and Bornhuetter-Ferguson Method ("BF Method") which are commonly employed by our actuaries together with a discussion of their strengths and weaknesses.

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Refer to Item 8, Note 8 to the Consolidated Financial Statements 'Reserve for Losses and Loss Expenses – Reserving Methodology – Key Actuarial Assumptions', which notes that the most significant assumptions used in our quarterly loss reserving process are expected loss ratios ("ELRs") and loss development patterns.

Gross Loss Reserves by Line of Business

Gross loss reserves for each of the reportable segments, segregated between case reserves and IBNR, by line of business are shown below: